Introduction Over the past years, there has been paradoxically, a significant decline and death in the many wildlife ungulates like the wildebeest in the Kalahari system and comparatively, the buffalo in the Northern system of Botswana (Cullen, 2014; Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). This uncongenial scenario has consequently led to the depletion of wildlife to a threshold that demands a drastic response from policy and human beings (Chobe Wildlife Trust as cited in Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). Such measures included for example water provision and restricted game hunting (Department of Wildlife & National Parks, 2013). It is on this note that these essays purports to critically and relatively discuss the development of game ranching in the Northern and Kalahari systems of Botswana. The stand is thus adopted based on the assumption that game ranching has the inherent ability to turn around the situation. The benefits and repercussions that can ensue there from will be discussed inter alia the two systems as well as drawing from other countries who have somewhat excelled in the industry like South Africa and Namibia (Kgamanyane, 2016). Game ranching in Botswana context An abridgment description of game ranching involves the extensive management of wildlife on a fenced land (Republic of Botswana, 2002) and or unfenced land (Conybeare & Rozemeijer, 1991). In extension, authors Mossmann and Mossmann (1976) posits that the management of wildlife and land alluded to above entails amongst others, the application of scientific knowledge for the mutual benefit of all life. Its development in Botswana has been rather slow due to the reliance on cattle farming. However, the subsequent game ranching policy and government support saw its steady grow. In fact there were 111 ranches in 2012 with the potential for upsurge (Boast, 2014). The Kalahari and Northern systems For purposes of discussion unfolding herein, the Kalahari system is referred to as the areas below the Makgadikgadi pans down to include the Ghanzi and Kgalagadi districts. These places generally typify land degradation (Reed, Stringer, Dougill, Perkins, Atlhopheng, Mulale & Farvetto, 2015) and fortunately game ranches have the capacity to rehabilitate such (Republic of Tanzania, 2000). In their view, Ghanzi District Council (2003) posits that the area is predominantly covered in deep sands and grass with a profound reliance on underground water. GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI &NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA On the one hand, the Northern system will be discussed under the parameters stretching from the Okavango, Makgadikgadi and Chobe enclaves. The area begins in the north-west where the delta drains inland from Angola and the central north-east with large flat plains logged with saline waters (Burgess, 2006) as well as the Chobe which benefits from Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. According to Perkins and Ringrose (1996) “the Northern systems which have permanently available surface water are characterized by higher large herbivore biomass (LHB). The area is also home to water dependent species e.g. buffalo (Murray as cited in Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). Figure 1: Part of the Kalahari system Figure 2: Part of the Northern system Images retrieved from www.googlearth.com The unique colours of both aerial images representing the Kalahari (Figure 1) and Northern (Figure 2) offer contrasting descriptions of the two systems. The brown colour reminiscent of the Kalahari implies the arid and barren nature of the system cynically called the “thirst land” (Parsons, 2016) as compared to the greenish Northern system typical of water abundance of the area especially during wet periods. Some game ranching species in the Kalahari and Northern systems Table 1 Gemsbok Red hartebeest Eland Blue wildebeest Springbok Warthog Impala Waterbuck Kudu Zebra Ostrich Tessebe Adopted from BWPA (2005) GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI & NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA Having brought the curtain down herein with the introduction, brief contextual situation of local game ranching, synopsis of both systems as the focal point and listing some game species, this essay will at this juncture essentially delineate the case of game ranching development in Botswana. In doing so, local, regional and international examples concomitant to the success and or failure of the enterprise will be used for clarity. A significant effort will be made to overly streamline the discussion as much as possible to Botswana with particular reference to the Kalahari and Northern systems. Significance and nemesis of game ranching development to Botswana For starters, game ranching enterprise is economically viable (Snyder, 1996). This assertion is also substantiated by studies carried out regionally by researchers Lindsey, Barnes, Nyirenda, Tambling and Taylor (2013) and Bezuidenhout (2012) among others. The former group suggesting 15.7 millions of USD in Zambia and the latter 960 million ZAR in South Africa just from auction sales. The fact that the enterprise is viewed with the potential to bring financial gains testifies the need to pursue and harness it for our benefit. However, in offering plaudits upon game ranching viability, comparison of Botswana game ranching potential with regional neighbours should be done with caution. This is because such countries have a proven track record and evolved over time reducing capital outlay needed to run them whilst ours is still in its infancy (Conybeare & Rosemeijer as cited in Molefe, 2002). Thus, Botswana has at her disposal the opportune prospect of maneuvering game ranching in both the Kalahari and Northern systems. It is also profoundly imperative to highlight that chances of the enterprise in the Kalahari can be expensive due to issues of restocking (Tacheba, Mahailwe & Dailey, 1991) necessitated by the decline in animal species like red hartebeest (Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). In their view, Lindsey et al., (2013) posits that game meat sourced from game ranching provides an alternative to beef and poultry meat. Even though their observation was made in the Zambian industry, this essay finds it’s relevant to discuss the issue relative to Botswana. This is in light with the continued and persistent outbreak of the Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) in the Northern system (BWPA, 2005), not forgetting the disastrous contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) disease (Burgess, 2006). These deadly cattle diseases degenerate the viability of livestock production in the Northern system in light of the stringent Botswana Meat Commission (BMC) and European Union (EU) slaughtering policies, hence the recommendation GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI &NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA of game ranching as an alternative step. On the contrary though, the Kalahari system has not experienced any major animal disease outbreaks as compared to the Northern system. However, this is not to imply that the Kalahari is somewhat devoid of animal diseases. Above all, studies have revealed that wildlife is better adapted to the African environment than livestock (Wildlife Campus, 2013; Molefe, 2002). Intensified game ranching provides for diversification of the economic activities in Botswana as part of the Economic Diversification Drive (EDD) strategy through developing new enterprises (Daily News, 2013; Republic of Botswana, 2002). Game ranching is one such development. The status quo is such that, though the Northern system is economically reliant of tourism of which game ranching is part of, much of eco-tourism activities do not occur in private game ranches. Thus, game ranching brings in a different economic perspective to the system like job creation for communities to flanking ranches. Besides privately owned ranches, communities can be empowered through Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRMs) and Community Based Organizations (CBOs) and Community Trusts (Arntzen, 2003). The same benefits can potentially be extended to game ranching in the Kalahari system. The development of game ranching in Botswana continues to meet with a plethora of obstacles wherein one problem can in turn be an advantage when comparing the Northern and Kalahari systems. The point is, what inhibits game ranching in the Northern system may not necessarily impede the industry in the Kalahari. For example, in their consultative work, ecologists Perkins and Ringrose (1996) found out that tourism in the northern Botswana has significantly broadened due to close proximity with the Zambezi system where facilities are in abundance. Contrariwise, White as cited in Perkins and Ringrose (1996) alludes that tourism is minimal due to the districts inaccessibility to services. It is profoundly imperative to mention that the study mentioned supra did not by any means target game ranching, nevertheless this essay finds it possible to technically relate their findings to the viability of the development of game ranching in both the Kalahari and Northern systems because the industry falls within the parameters of tourism. The Kalahari system finds itself trailing behind the Northern system with regards to the financial and economic value of game ranching partly due to the absence of high value species in the industry like elephant and buffalo which are in abundance in the latter system (Arntzen, 2003). This is further being compounded by tourist preferences that tend to tilt towards the north GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI & NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA where the big five species are visible (Cousins, Sadler & Evans, 2008). It may be argued on the contrary that, species absent from the Kalahari can be translocated to the south, but alas, there are ethical issues as per CITES and policy regulations as well as exuberant expenses to incur as suggested by the former state president Sir Ketumile Masire (Daily News, 2016). Using Sir Ketumile Masire Sekoma ranch as a case study, the Kalahari is beaten to the finish line by the Northern system in water availability. The Daily News (2016) emphatically cautions that without sufficient water, captured species as in game ranching are at a death risk. In his study, which otherwise focused on goats locally, Derry (2004) vigilantly cautions about the strenuous distances animals have to travel to water sources as an impediment to their grazing patterns. This concern is however limited in danger in the Northern systems because it generally has enough water for species. Counter statements may hasten to mention the option of drilled boreholes in the Kalahari which is good, but that is mitigated by the saline underground water unpalatable to animals (Burgess, 2006). Game ranching development in Botswana is to some extent constrained by policies that have over the years over emphasized wildlife conservation and empowerment of people than more economically oriented perspectives towards fauna and flora (Arntzen, 2003). In the view of this essay, game ranching provides a conceptual framework for such paradigm shift. As it stands, the industry will cover what the policies purports to and offer something economically. Such areas for conservation are abundant in the Northern than in the Kalahari system, safe for the CKGR and Gemsbok National Park. As an antidote to correct the above anomaly about game ranching in Botswana’s systems as elsewhere is the “political will” needed towards the realization of the full potential of the industry (Musengezi, 2010). Much political attention seems to be pushed towards the Northern system with greater efforts made towards the sustainable use of the Northern system especially the Okavango delta which is seen as the jewel of world tourism (Burgess, 2006) overlooking the dry Kalahari system. A lot of game proof fences around Botswana were politically erected whilst others were rightfully erected to control diseases (BWPA, 2005) whilst also wrongfully restricting the natural movements of species (Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). The huge presence of elephants in the Northern system acts as an impediment to fencing ranches since the wildlife has to be enclosed in most cases (Tacheba, Mahabile & Dailey, 1991). There is already a concern that the elephants are destroying the buffalo fence intended to curb the GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI &NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA spread of FMD in the region. A subsequent of concern for the game rancher will therefore be increased fencing expenses caused by elephants’ destruction to and from drinking areas. That is if the fences cut across their natural movements. Comparatively, this is not a concern for an ordinary game ranching enterprise in the Kalahari system. Conclusion “In the emergent Africa you either use wildlife or lose it” (Myers in Krueter & Workman, 1997; p.171). Although this statement may sound cynical and sarcastic, it perfectly fits the state of game ranching even locally. The point is Africa and Botswana in particular have a rich varied species of wildlife that have to be used through economic, sustainable and conservative enterprises akin to game ranching than losing it through consumptive methods like poaching. Governments, Botswana inclusive, should not be fearful of game ranching especially that it is subject to stricter CITES regulations (Republic of Tanzania, 2000). Hence management and control will not necessarily be a grave issue. The Kalahari and Northern systems present diverse chances for the industry in Botswana more so that the two systems are rather different ecologically offering ranchers and tourists’ options in terms of experiencing the fauna and flora of Botswana. What is important especially in complex savanna systems like the Kalahari and Northern Botswana is to make sure policy actions are guided by expert empirical research (Kgosikoma, Mojeremane & Harvie, 2013). As such, the development of game ranching as a sustainable land use option and economic incentive for biodiversity conservation in the Kalahari and Northern systems is viable for Botswana (Chomba, Obias, & Nyirenda, 2014). GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI & NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA References Arntzen, J. W. (2003). An economic view on wildlife management areas (WMAs) in Botswana. The Wildlife Conservation Union. Bezuidenhout, R. (2012). Game auction trends in 2012. Retrieved from http://www.farmersweekly.co.za/article.aspx?id=34535&h=Game-auction-trends-in-2012 Boast, L. (2014). Exploring the causes of and mitigation options for human-predator conflict on game ranches in Botswana: How is coexistence possible? Doctoral Dissertation: University of Cape Town. Burgess, J. (2006). Country pasture/forage resource profiles. Food Agricultural Organization (FAO). Chomba, C., Obias, C., & Nyirenda, T. (2014). Game Ranching: A Sustainable Land Use Option and Economic Incentive for Biodiversity Conservation in Zambia. Open Journal of Ecology, 4, 571-581.doi.org/10.4236/oje.2014.49047 Conybeare, A., & Rozemeijer, N. G. (1991). Game ranching area assessment work plan. United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Cousins, J. A., Sadler, J. P., & Evans, J. (2008). Exploring the role of private wildlife ranches as a conservation tool: Stakeholder perspectives. Ecology & Society, 13(2), 43. Retrieved from www.ecologysociety.org Cullen, T. (2014). World parks congress 2014: Parks, people & planet. Koedoe, 57(1), 1338 1341. doi: 10.4102/koedoe.v5i1.1338 Daily News. (November, 2013). State of the nation address: SONA 2013. Botswana Press Agency (BOPA).Gaborone; Botswana. Daily News. (January, 2016). Masire loses 89 Zebras. Botswana Press Agency (BOPA).Gaborone; Botswana. Derry, J. F. (2004). Phiospheres in semi-arid rangelands: Consequences of spatially constrained plant-herbivore interactions. Doctoral Dissertation: University of Edinburg. Ghanzi District Council. (2003). Ghanzi District Development Plan 6: 2003-2009. Ministry of Local Government. Gaborone; Botswana. Kgamanyane, J. (2016, 19 February). Botswana urged to embrace game ranching. Weekend Post. Retrieved from http://www.weekendpost.co.bw GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI &NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA Kgosikoma, O. E., Mojeremane, W., & Harvie, B. A. (2013). Government management systems & their effects on savanna ecosystems: A review. Journal of Ecology & Natural Environment, 5(6), 88-94.doi: 10.5897 Krueter, U. P., & Workman, J. P. (1997). Comparative profitability of cattle & wildlife ranches in semi-arid Zimbabwe. Journal of Arid Environments, 35, 171-187. doi: 10.1006/jare Lindsey, P. A., Barnes, J., Nyirenda, Y., Tambling, C., & Taylor,W. (2013). The Zambian game ranching industry: Scale, associated benefits & limitations affecting its development. Wildlife Producers Association of Zambia (WAPZA). Molefe, J. I. (2002). Multi-criteria analysis of game and cattle ranching in the Kgalagardi District; Botswana. The case of Matsheng. Master’s Thesis: University of Botswana. Mossmann, S. L., & Mossmann, A. S. (1976). Wildlife utilization and game ranching. Report on a study of recent progress in this field in Southern Africa. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Morges; Switzerland. Musengezi, J. (2010). Wildlife utilization on private land: Understanding the economics of game ranching in South Africa. Doctoral Dissertation: University Of Florida Pekins, J. S., & Ringrose, S. M. (1996). A study of livestock/wildlife/tourism degradation linkages. Development cooperation objectives & beef protocol. European Commission. Final Report. Annex 1. Gaborone; Botswana. Pekins, J. S., & Ringrose, S. M. (1996). A study of livestock/wildlife/tourism degradation linkages. Development cooperation objectives & beef protocol. European Commission. Final Report. Annex 2. Gaborone; Botswana. Reed, M. S., Stringer, L. C., Dougill, A. J., Perkins, J. S., Atlhopheng, J. R., Mulale, K., & Farvetto, N. ( 2015). Reorienting land degradation towards sustainable land management: Linking sustainable livelihoods with ecosystem services in rangeland systems. Journal of Environmental Management, 151, 472-485. Retrieved from www.elsevier.com Republic of Botswana. (2002). Game ranching policy for Botswana. Ministry of Trade, Industry, Wildlife & Tourism. Gaborone; Botswana. Republic of Tanzania. (2000). Policy guidelines for game farming & game ranching in Tanzania. Ministry of Natural Resources & Tourism. Dar Es Lam; Tanzania. GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI & NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA Department of Wildlife & National Parks. (2013). Aerial census of animals in Botswana: 2012 Dry Season. Ministry of Trade, Industry, Wildlife & Tourism. Gaborone; Botswana. Parsons, N. (2016) Bechuanaland; Republic of Botswana. Britannica Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/place/Botswana . Snyder, D. (1996). Commercialization of wild game ranching: Enterprise budgets. Economic Research Institute. Retrived from www.digitalcomms.usu.edu/eri/111 Tacheba, G., Mahabile, W., & Dailey, J. (eds.). (October, 1991). The potential for increasing livestock productivity in Botswana. Proceedings of the livestock production workshop. Ministry of Agriculture. Gaborone; Botswana. Wildlife Campus. (2013). The trend towards game ranching in Southern Africa. ABSA Bank.
No comments:
Post a Comment