Game Ranching in Botswana: Comparing the Kalahari and Northern Systems

Introduction Over the past years, there has been paradoxically, a significant decline and death in the many wildlife ungulates like the wildebeest in the Kalahari system and comparatively, the buffalo in the Northern system of Botswana (Cullen, 2014; Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). This uncongenial scenario has consequently led to the depletion of wildlife to a threshold that demands a drastic response from policy and human beings (Chobe Wildlife Trust as cited in Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). Such measures included for example water provision and restricted game hunting (Department of Wildlife & National Parks, 2013). It is on this note that these essays purports to critically and relatively discuss the development of game ranching in the Northern and Kalahari systems of Botswana. The stand is thus adopted based on the assumption that game ranching has the inherent ability to turn around the situation. The benefits and repercussions that can ensue there from will be discussed inter alia the two systems as well as drawing from other countries who have somewhat excelled in the industry like South Africa and Namibia (Kgamanyane, 2016). Game ranching in Botswana context An abridgment description of game ranching involves the extensive management of wildlife on a fenced land (Republic of Botswana, 2002) and or unfenced land (Conybeare & Rozemeijer, 1991). In extension, authors Mossmann and Mossmann (1976) posits that the management of wildlife and land alluded to above entails amongst others, the application of scientific knowledge for the mutual benefit of all life. Its development in Botswana has been rather slow due to the reliance on cattle farming. However, the subsequent game ranching policy and government support saw its steady grow. In fact there were 111 ranches in 2012 with the potential for upsurge (Boast, 2014). The Kalahari and Northern systems For purposes of discussion unfolding herein, the Kalahari system is referred to as the areas below the Makgadikgadi pans down to include the Ghanzi and Kgalagadi districts. These places generally typify land degradation (Reed, Stringer, Dougill, Perkins, Atlhopheng, Mulale & Farvetto, 2015) and fortunately game ranches have the capacity to rehabilitate such (Republic of Tanzania, 2000). In their view, Ghanzi District Council (2003) posits that the area is predominantly covered in deep sands and grass with a profound reliance on underground water. GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI &NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA On the one hand, the Northern system will be discussed under the parameters stretching from the Okavango, Makgadikgadi and Chobe enclaves. The area begins in the north-west where the delta drains inland from Angola and the central north-east with large flat plains logged with saline waters (Burgess, 2006) as well as the Chobe which benefits from Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. According to Perkins and Ringrose (1996) “the Northern systems which have permanently available surface water are characterized by higher large herbivore biomass (LHB). The area is also home to water dependent species e.g. buffalo (Murray as cited in Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). Figure 1: Part of the Kalahari system Figure 2: Part of the Northern system Images retrieved from www.googlearth.com The unique colours of both aerial images representing the Kalahari (Figure 1) and Northern (Figure 2) offer contrasting descriptions of the two systems. The brown colour reminiscent of the Kalahari implies the arid and barren nature of the system cynically called the “thirst land” (Parsons, 2016) as compared to the greenish Northern system typical of water abundance of the area especially during wet periods. Some game ranching species in the Kalahari and Northern systems Table 1 Gemsbok Red hartebeest Eland Blue wildebeest Springbok Warthog Impala Waterbuck Kudu Zebra Ostrich Tessebe Adopted from BWPA (2005) GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI & NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA Having brought the curtain down herein with the introduction, brief contextual situation of local game ranching, synopsis of both systems as the focal point and listing some game species, this essay will at this juncture essentially delineate the case of game ranching development in Botswana. In doing so, local, regional and international examples concomitant to the success and or failure of the enterprise will be used for clarity. A significant effort will be made to overly streamline the discussion as much as possible to Botswana with particular reference to the Kalahari and Northern systems. Significance and nemesis of game ranching development to Botswana For starters, game ranching enterprise is economically viable (Snyder, 1996). This assertion is also substantiated by studies carried out regionally by researchers Lindsey, Barnes, Nyirenda, Tambling and Taylor (2013) and Bezuidenhout (2012) among others. The former group suggesting 15.7 millions of USD in Zambia and the latter 960 million ZAR in South Africa just from auction sales. The fact that the enterprise is viewed with the potential to bring financial gains testifies the need to pursue and harness it for our benefit. However, in offering plaudits upon game ranching viability, comparison of Botswana game ranching potential with regional neighbours should be done with caution. This is because such countries have a proven track record and evolved over time reducing capital outlay needed to run them whilst ours is still in its infancy (Conybeare & Rosemeijer as cited in Molefe, 2002). Thus, Botswana has at her disposal the opportune prospect of maneuvering game ranching in both the Kalahari and Northern systems. It is also profoundly imperative to highlight that chances of the enterprise in the Kalahari can be expensive due to issues of restocking (Tacheba, Mahailwe & Dailey, 1991) necessitated by the decline in animal species like red hartebeest (Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). In their view, Lindsey et al., (2013) posits that game meat sourced from game ranching provides an alternative to beef and poultry meat. Even though their observation was made in the Zambian industry, this essay finds it’s relevant to discuss the issue relative to Botswana. This is in light with the continued and persistent outbreak of the Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) in the Northern system (BWPA, 2005), not forgetting the disastrous contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) disease (Burgess, 2006). These deadly cattle diseases degenerate the viability of livestock production in the Northern system in light of the stringent Botswana Meat Commission (BMC) and European Union (EU) slaughtering policies, hence the recommendation GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI &NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA of game ranching as an alternative step. On the contrary though, the Kalahari system has not experienced any major animal disease outbreaks as compared to the Northern system. However, this is not to imply that the Kalahari is somewhat devoid of animal diseases. Above all, studies have revealed that wildlife is better adapted to the African environment than livestock (Wildlife Campus, 2013; Molefe, 2002). Intensified game ranching provides for diversification of the economic activities in Botswana as part of the Economic Diversification Drive (EDD) strategy through developing new enterprises (Daily News, 2013; Republic of Botswana, 2002). Game ranching is one such development. The status quo is such that, though the Northern system is economically reliant of tourism of which game ranching is part of, much of eco-tourism activities do not occur in private game ranches. Thus, game ranching brings in a different economic perspective to the system like job creation for communities to flanking ranches. Besides privately owned ranches, communities can be empowered through Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRMs) and Community Based Organizations (CBOs) and Community Trusts (Arntzen, 2003). The same benefits can potentially be extended to game ranching in the Kalahari system. The development of game ranching in Botswana continues to meet with a plethora of obstacles wherein one problem can in turn be an advantage when comparing the Northern and Kalahari systems. The point is, what inhibits game ranching in the Northern system may not necessarily impede the industry in the Kalahari. For example, in their consultative work, ecologists Perkins and Ringrose (1996) found out that tourism in the northern Botswana has significantly broadened due to close proximity with the Zambezi system where facilities are in abundance. Contrariwise, White as cited in Perkins and Ringrose (1996) alludes that tourism is minimal due to the districts inaccessibility to services. It is profoundly imperative to mention that the study mentioned supra did not by any means target game ranching, nevertheless this essay finds it possible to technically relate their findings to the viability of the development of game ranching in both the Kalahari and Northern systems because the industry falls within the parameters of tourism. The Kalahari system finds itself trailing behind the Northern system with regards to the financial and economic value of game ranching partly due to the absence of high value species in the industry like elephant and buffalo which are in abundance in the latter system (Arntzen, 2003). This is further being compounded by tourist preferences that tend to tilt towards the north GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI & NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA where the big five species are visible (Cousins, Sadler & Evans, 2008). It may be argued on the contrary that, species absent from the Kalahari can be translocated to the south, but alas, there are ethical issues as per CITES and policy regulations as well as exuberant expenses to incur as suggested by the former state president Sir Ketumile Masire (Daily News, 2016). Using Sir Ketumile Masire Sekoma ranch as a case study, the Kalahari is beaten to the finish line by the Northern system in water availability. The Daily News (2016) emphatically cautions that without sufficient water, captured species as in game ranching are at a death risk. In his study, which otherwise focused on goats locally, Derry (2004) vigilantly cautions about the strenuous distances animals have to travel to water sources as an impediment to their grazing patterns. This concern is however limited in danger in the Northern systems because it generally has enough water for species. Counter statements may hasten to mention the option of drilled boreholes in the Kalahari which is good, but that is mitigated by the saline underground water unpalatable to animals (Burgess, 2006). Game ranching development in Botswana is to some extent constrained by policies that have over the years over emphasized wildlife conservation and empowerment of people than more economically oriented perspectives towards fauna and flora (Arntzen, 2003). In the view of this essay, game ranching provides a conceptual framework for such paradigm shift. As it stands, the industry will cover what the policies purports to and offer something economically. Such areas for conservation are abundant in the Northern than in the Kalahari system, safe for the CKGR and Gemsbok National Park. As an antidote to correct the above anomaly about game ranching in Botswana’s systems as elsewhere is the “political will” needed towards the realization of the full potential of the industry (Musengezi, 2010). Much political attention seems to be pushed towards the Northern system with greater efforts made towards the sustainable use of the Northern system especially the Okavango delta which is seen as the jewel of world tourism (Burgess, 2006) overlooking the dry Kalahari system. A lot of game proof fences around Botswana were politically erected whilst others were rightfully erected to control diseases (BWPA, 2005) whilst also wrongfully restricting the natural movements of species (Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). The huge presence of elephants in the Northern system acts as an impediment to fencing ranches since the wildlife has to be enclosed in most cases (Tacheba, Mahabile & Dailey, 1991). There is already a concern that the elephants are destroying the buffalo fence intended to curb the GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI &NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA spread of FMD in the region. A subsequent of concern for the game rancher will therefore be increased fencing expenses caused by elephants’ destruction to and from drinking areas. That is if the fences cut across their natural movements. Comparatively, this is not a concern for an ordinary game ranching enterprise in the Kalahari system. Conclusion “In the emergent Africa you either use wildlife or lose it” (Myers in Krueter & Workman, 1997; p.171). Although this statement may sound cynical and sarcastic, it perfectly fits the state of game ranching even locally. The point is Africa and Botswana in particular have a rich varied species of wildlife that have to be used through economic, sustainable and conservative enterprises akin to game ranching than losing it through consumptive methods like poaching. Governments, Botswana inclusive, should not be fearful of game ranching especially that it is subject to stricter CITES regulations (Republic of Tanzania, 2000). Hence management and control will not necessarily be a grave issue. The Kalahari and Northern systems present diverse chances for the industry in Botswana more so that the two systems are rather different ecologically offering ranchers and tourists’ options in terms of experiencing the fauna and flora of Botswana. What is important especially in complex savanna systems like the Kalahari and Northern Botswana is to make sure policy actions are guided by expert empirical research (Kgosikoma, Mojeremane & Harvie, 2013). As such, the development of game ranching as a sustainable land use option and economic incentive for biodiversity conservation in the Kalahari and Northern systems is viable for Botswana (Chomba, Obias, & Nyirenda, 2014). GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI & NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA References Arntzen, J. W. (2003). An economic view on wildlife management areas (WMAs) in Botswana. The Wildlife Conservation Union. Bezuidenhout, R. (2012). Game auction trends in 2012. Retrieved from http://www.farmersweekly.co.za/article.aspx?id=34535&h=Game-auction-trends-in-2012 Boast, L. (2014). Exploring the causes of and mitigation options for human-predator conflict on game ranches in Botswana: How is coexistence possible? Doctoral Dissertation: University of Cape Town. Burgess, J. (2006). Country pasture/forage resource profiles. Food Agricultural Organization (FAO). Chomba, C., Obias, C., & Nyirenda, T. (2014). Game Ranching: A Sustainable Land Use Option and Economic Incentive for Biodiversity Conservation in Zambia. Open Journal of Ecology, 4, 571-581.doi.org/10.4236/oje.2014.49047 Conybeare, A., & Rozemeijer, N. G. (1991). Game ranching area assessment work plan. United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Cousins, J. A., Sadler, J. P., & Evans, J. (2008). Exploring the role of private wildlife ranches as a conservation tool: Stakeholder perspectives. Ecology & Society, 13(2), 43. Retrieved from www.ecologysociety.org Cullen, T. (2014). World parks congress 2014: Parks, people & planet. Koedoe, 57(1), 1338 1341. doi: 10.4102/koedoe.v5i1.1338 Daily News. (November, 2013). State of the nation address: SONA 2013. Botswana Press Agency (BOPA).Gaborone; Botswana. Daily News. (January, 2016). Masire loses 89 Zebras. Botswana Press Agency (BOPA).Gaborone; Botswana. Derry, J. F. (2004). Phiospheres in semi-arid rangelands: Consequences of spatially constrained plant-herbivore interactions. Doctoral Dissertation: University of Edinburg. Ghanzi District Council. (2003). Ghanzi District Development Plan 6: 2003-2009. Ministry of Local Government. Gaborone; Botswana. Kgamanyane, J. (2016, 19 February). Botswana urged to embrace game ranching. Weekend Post. Retrieved from http://www.weekendpost.co.bw GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI &NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA Kgosikoma, O. E., Mojeremane, W., & Harvie, B. A. (2013). Government management systems & their effects on savanna ecosystems: A review. Journal of Ecology & Natural Environment, 5(6), 88-94.doi: 10.5897 Krueter, U. P., & Workman, J. P. (1997). Comparative profitability of cattle & wildlife ranches in semi-arid Zimbabwe. Journal of Arid Environments, 35, 171-187. doi: 10.1006/jare Lindsey, P. A., Barnes, J., Nyirenda, Y., Tambling, C., & Taylor,W. (2013). The Zambian game ranching industry: Scale, associated benefits & limitations affecting its development. Wildlife Producers Association of Zambia (WAPZA). Molefe, J. I. (2002). Multi-criteria analysis of game and cattle ranching in the Kgalagardi District; Botswana. The case of Matsheng. Master’s Thesis: University of Botswana. Mossmann, S. L., & Mossmann, A. S. (1976). Wildlife utilization and game ranching. Report on a study of recent progress in this field in Southern Africa. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Morges; Switzerland. Musengezi, J. (2010). Wildlife utilization on private land: Understanding the economics of game ranching in South Africa. Doctoral Dissertation: University Of Florida Pekins, J. S., & Ringrose, S. M. (1996). A study of livestock/wildlife/tourism degradation linkages. Development cooperation objectives & beef protocol. European Commission. Final Report. Annex 1. Gaborone; Botswana. Pekins, J. S., & Ringrose, S. M. (1996). A study of livestock/wildlife/tourism degradation linkages. Development cooperation objectives & beef protocol. European Commission. Final Report. Annex 2. Gaborone; Botswana. Reed, M. S., Stringer, L. C., Dougill, A. J., Perkins, J. S., Atlhopheng, J. R., Mulale, K., & Farvetto, N. ( 2015). Reorienting land degradation towards sustainable land management: Linking sustainable livelihoods with ecosystem services in rangeland systems. Journal of Environmental Management, 151, 472-485. Retrieved from www.elsevier.com Republic of Botswana. (2002). Game ranching policy for Botswana. Ministry of Trade, Industry, Wildlife & Tourism. Gaborone; Botswana. Republic of Tanzania. (2000). Policy guidelines for game farming & game ranching in Tanzania. Ministry of Natural Resources & Tourism. Dar Es Lam; Tanzania. GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI & NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA Department of Wildlife & National Parks. (2013). Aerial census of animals in Botswana: 2012 Dry Season. Ministry of Trade, Industry, Wildlife & Tourism. Gaborone; Botswana. Parsons, N. (2016) Bechuanaland; Republic of Botswana. Britannica Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/place/Botswana . Snyder, D. (1996). Commercialization of wild game ranching: Enterprise budgets. Economic Research Institute. Retrived from www.digitalcomms.usu.edu/eri/111 Tacheba, G., Mahabile, W., & Dailey, J. (eds.). (October, 1991). The potential for increasing livestock productivity in Botswana. Proceedings of the livestock production workshop. Ministry of Agriculture. Gaborone; Botswana. Wildlife Campus. (2013). The trend towards game ranching in Southern Africa. ABSA Bank.

Sustainable Tourism Development in developing countries

 

Introduction

                "A global agenda for change” this was what Brundtland’s team was tasked with in pursuit of long-term environmental strategies for achieving sustainable development by the year 2000 and beyond (World Commission on Environment & Development, 1987). Amongst the developments that subsequently came up was the extension of the same to sustainable tourism towards a common future. The discussion that follows henceforth will be premised on the challenges of sustainable tourism development in developing countries.  Morgan (1999) alludes that there exists a nexus of questions about the practicality of achieving sustainable tourism by developing countries. Paradoxically, Rizio and Gios (2014) emphasis that “in practice, the application of the conceptual framework for sustainable tourism development is not straight forward particularly where natural resources are concerned” (p. 2381).

            In discussing sustainable tourism development in developing countries, it is imperative that this essay adopts a position relative to the Millennium Summit of 2000 whose cornerstones were construed as a panacea to sustainable development in developing countries and tourism is seen as one such inventiveness to pursue (Deszczynski, 2011). Hence, the adopted trajectory of briefly looking at developing countries, sustainable development, sustainable tourism and to a larger extent unpacking the challenges militating against sustainable tourism development in developing countries.

Developing countries

            The United Nations, World Bank and literature in general display a lack of universally agreed definition of what constitutes a developing country. Terms like “less developed countries”, “landlocked developing countries” and “small island developing countries” are used interchangeably. The judgement to that effect is pronounced on the grounds of the low level of such countries per capital income (World Bank, 2008). They are mostly countries who have been former colonies experiencing socio-economic challenges such as poverty (Mirskii, 2010).

Sustainable development

            The United Nations Economic Commission of Africa (2009) maintains that the Stockholm Conference of 1972 and the Brundland Report of 1987 opened gates for the analytical approach to the challenges of sustainable development. Sustainable development is thus development that meets the needs of the present without in any way compromising the inherent ability of future generations to meet their own needs (United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, 2007). In essence, the implied development should be a double edged sword to tackle current challenges yet also thinking of the long term picture.

Sustainable tourism development

            In their study, Dong et al (2004) posits that sustainable tourism development is a high stake issue in global fora on long trends in tourism destination development. They also conclude that this ecological undertaking is tilted more towards developing countries than their developed counterparts. The concept became the buzzword after the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) Report of 1987 axing around the interrelatedness of social, economic and ecological sustainability (Mbaiwa, 2005).

            Besides being viewed in light of the present and future, sustainable tourism is according to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (1994) “envisaged as leading to the management of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes…” (p. 30). Thus, this form of tourism has the ability to transform the socio-economic and ecological levels of developing countries sustainably.

Challenges militating against sustainable tourism development in developing countries

            Despite their variability in nature, the challenges to be discussed hereunder basically trickles down to economic, social and environmental aspects (United Nations Environmental Programme, 2012). However, some challenges are policy and politically oriented thus further hampering sustainable tourism development in host destinations like Botswana (Mbaiwa, 2015).

            To begin with, sustainable tourism development in developing countries is faced with a plethora of climate change effects such as unprecedented disease outbreaks (Moswete & Dube, 2011). In extension, Rutty and Scott (2016) highlights that “weather and climate represent a key element of the natural resource base of a tourism destination and this is an important consideration in tourist decision making” (p. 2). As such, sustainable tourism development in developing countries that focus on the natural base alluded to above is poised to suffer consequently. Regionally, one can think of Botswana tourism in the northern system which is profoundly reliant on the Okavango Delta which once experienced some in flooding uncongenially leading to loss of revenue, jobs and declined livelihoods of the locals (Moswete & Dube, 2011).

            Weaver (2012) posits that intervention measures should be supported by government and the private sector in order to yield tangible benefits and to address local sustainability issues against climate change. However, developing countries face a huge challenge of expertise and financial backing to counter climate change (Milazi, 1996; Fazendin, 2009). The situation is exacerbated by misconceptions of what entails climate change and lack of awareness that tourist behaviours like travelling patterns also effect climate change (Dillimono & Dickinson, 2014)

            It is generally held that sustainable tourism development can economically emancipate developing countries from poverty (UNWTO, 1994). However, the situation on the ground is the exact opposite. A study by Mbaiwa (2005) on the socio-economic impacts of enclave tourism in the Okavango Delta; Botswana, revealed the challenge of repatriation of tourism revenue by dominating foreign owned tourist operations as is the case with many developing countries. At the time, 70% of tourism revenue generated locally was repatriated outside Botswana. In this light, developing countries are thus handicapped in their pursuit for sustainable tourism development because the proceeds that accrue there from tourism should also benefit the local people and to a larger extent biodiversity conservation in the whole country (Mbaiwa, 2015). A similar trend was also revealed in Kenya by authors Akama and Kieti (2007) when reviewing the status of tourism and socio-economic development in developing countries using Kenya as a case study.

            It is also highly imperative to note here on the contrary that, the paradox of foreign exchange leakage (United Nations Commission for Sustainable Development, 1999) is through policy avoided in some developing countries which better positions them to benefit from tourism. Botswana’s neighbours in the west; Namibia, rightfully retains more revenue than the former because of an indigenized international airline operations. In this mix-up, Zimbabwe has an almost similar airline approach to Namibia yet she does not retain tourism revenue largely due to the declining Zimbabwean Dollar (Mbaiwa, 2005). On a mass tourist scale which is unlike the pursuit for our common future, Mauritius tourism is monopolized by large international groups like Sun International (Southern African Development Community, 2009). The above examples are testimony to the assertion that the tourism industry is a complex business whereby technical expertise and research are pivotal to achieving sustainable tourism development by developing countries with regards to devising and implementing sustainable plans, policies and projects (Gartner, 2008).

            Buchsbaum (2004) presupposes that sustainable tourism development in developing countries is somewhat hampered by insufficient environmental education knowledge by the majority of stakeholders involved. It is the opinion of this essay that the allegedly lack of environmental education has its roots in the education systems and curriculum models adopted by developing countries. Using Botswana as a case study for further clarity on this stand, the status quo is such that environmental education where the concept of sustainable tourism is housed, its teaching and learning is from an infusion perspective. That is, it does not stand alone as a curriculum subject but rather amalgamated into other existing high stake subjects. The issues related to sustainable tourism development are infused into Social Studies, Science, Cultural Studies, Environmental Science and Creative and Performing Arts at levels preceding tertiary education (Department of Curriculum Development & Evaluation, 2005)

            The subsequent nemesis of this concoction is lack of a sustainable tourism development base. As Buchsbaum (2004) notes “the hope is that education can build environmental ethos…” (p. 67). These are the ethos needed by an individual who is to function well in a community where sustainable tourism development is crucial to the ecological future of the global world. If the status quo is left to persist, then our education graduates will eternally serve as an antidote to the efforts of achieving sustainability in tourism.

            A regional study conducted by SADC (2009) has indicated that a variety of sustainable tourism development initiatives exist in the SADC region to promote the social, economic and ecological sustainability in the region. Yet, these efforts often replicate and compete with one another. Thus, the logical conclusion that can be deduced here is that developing countries are technically challenged. In this instance, everything boils down to lack of managerial skills and professional approach (Urquhart, 1998). On the other hand though, this essay hastens to posit that, replicating policies and projects without careful consideration for the sovereign and local settings in developing countries which is so much varied is a challenge precipitated by the very policy developers and reformers with poor planning. Developmental programs like Sustainable Tourism for Eliminating Poverty (STEP) by the UNWTO have failed in some countries (Gartner, 2008). Moreover, Manwa and Manwa (2014) cautions that one size fits all strategies do not always pen out well in sustainable tourism development.

            The traditional reliance on agriculture by most developing countries has meant that every effort is made to protect the industry or develop it. Within the Southern African region, such efforts have included erection of veterinary fences to control animal diseases like foot and mouth (Botswana Wildlife Producers Association, 2005) whilst also wrongfully restricting the natural movements of species (Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). It must be borne in mind that these movements are migratory routes in search of grazing pastures and water. Thus altering natural movements is incongruent to sustainable tourism development.

            The above situation was observed in Botswana by Moswete and Dube (2011) that the veterinary fences renders the ecologically rich Makgadikgadi, Okavango and Chobe out of bounds for animals in other parts of Botswana consequently threatening their survival which on the bigger picture is needed for sustainable tourism development.

            As has been noted earlier in this essay by Akama and Keiti (2007) as well as in Mbaiwa (2005) that enclave tourism has a lot of demerits upon the locals socio-economically, the International Council on Local Environmental Activities (1999) cautions that, ecologically the intrusion of large foreign owned tourism enterprises brings along huge numbers of tourists with high consumption and waste habits into developing countries which unfortunately do not have adequate waste management infrastructure. On the extreme, these enclave businesses do not take due care of the environmental impact of their actions to the extent of exceeding the carrying capacities of their resorts (Buchsbaum, 2004).

             As the ICLEA (1999) hastens, one of the barriers to sustainable tourism development is over-reliance on a market that treats our exquisite natural environment and culture as free public goods leading to insensitive and irresponsible tourism.  By contrast, the level of consumption and waste produced by locals alone is less compared to the foreigners who are part-time inhabitants of natural areas in developing countries. The inconsiderate behaviour by businesses and tourists is so much against governments policies adopted by developing countries like Botswana; “low volume-high value” approach to sustainable tourism policies (Rozemeijer, 2000). This is, however, not to imply that all tourists are this bad because some are educated and responsible travelers in developing countries. Efforts are made to try and educate travelers to destinations in areas that masses converge like the Toyota 1000km race in Botswana and Dakar race in Senegal.

            Sustainable tourism development in developing countries also faces a financial challenge in terms of funding for sustainable projects. Fazendin (2009) points to the fact that this lack thereof funding has led to a heavy reliance on international help from the west. The author singles out Mozambique as a state where construction and communication initiatives across the country are mainly from the international community. In this case, it is only logical then to question the support of the governments in developing countries towards sustainable tourism development.      The rhetoric of economic recession leading to reduced government spending and investment in sustainable tourism is immaterial at this juncture. The government of Botswana has took a major decision to invest over P50 billion towards the development of Kasane into a world tourism hub during the 2016-2017 budget. The money is poised to be used for developments and compensation because some residential areas are to be demolished to pave way for the Kasane-Kanzungula bridge which is also a challenge as compensation is never enough (K. Macala, personal communication, 26 April, 2016).

            Jamal et al., (2013) indicates that attention has to be paid towards among others, indigenous people, women and ethnic minority in developing countries who stand to be impacted by tourism and neoliberal agendas. From the above, one can pick interestingly something that is uncommon in most research on sustainable tourism, the role played by females. This feminist push is somewhat necessary for discussion as a challenge towards sustainable tourism development in developing countries where women are traditionally relegated to the background in ecological discourses. On a demeaning level, their involvement is rather limited to domestic chores in tourism resorts like preparing food, cleaning and bar-tending.

            Human beings have coexisted with wildlife and the environment since early human evolution. In this context, people have always cared for wildlife species through totemic cultural practices like in African Traditional Religion (Mogapi & Mathole, 2013). However, there were other practices that led to mass killings of wildlife for community consumption (Ngongolo., Gatsha., & Selwe, 2010).

            As countries got more civilized, policies and legislations were drafted in to control hunting of wildlife species for game meat in pursuit of sustainable tourism development. For example, Botswana introduced the nationwide hunting ban in 2014 seeking a paradigm shift from consumptive tourism to sustainable tourism development (Daily News, 2013). Consequently, these developments increased poaching for subsistence use and commercially by large synchronized syndicates. This also extends to cross border poaching which negatively impact on wildlife populations and environmental degradation (Republic of Malawi, 2006). Developing countries are thus challenged to put in place expensive and technological anti-poaching interventions at the expense of investing in sustainable tourism development projects. This financial redirection by governments is also relative to curbing criminality, prostitution, HIV/AIDS and drug abuse (UNCSD, 1999). A South African study has revealed that if issues such as crime and security of tourists are not addressed in a concerned and coordinated manner, tourism in whatever form will be adversely affected (Ferreira, 1999). The same can be extended to sustainable tourism development in developing countries.

            Due to scientific advancements by the global world, some experts have experimented with breeding of wildlife species. Much of these experiments have been in developing countries. The repercussions that ensue there from can cause changes in the distribution of phenotypic traits in experimental species, often with inconsiderate biological and ecological consequences (Bunnefeld & Keane, 2014). These authors emphasis their assertion with a Zimbabwean experiment that went wrong in trying to reduce trophy horns in two antelope species and antlers in red deer.

            Economical crisis, civil wars and political turmoil have negative implications for sustainable tourism development (Milazi, 1996). In extending the same, Harrison (1992) cautions that instability in one country can subsequently affect neighbouring countries transport and communication systems which are vital for sustainable tourism development. Countries such as Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, Angola and Namibia were singled out as states whose civil matters even affected those beyond their territorial borders. Additionally, Eretria, Ethiopia and Kenya are examples in upper Africa (Common Market for Eastern & Southern Africa, 2012)

Conclusion

                Even though debate on sustainable tourism development is patchy, disjointed and flawed with scholarly arguments (Liu, 2010), everything appears to trickle down to discussing sustainable tourism development from a drift premised on the tenets of the social, economic and ecological sustainability (Mbaiwa, 2005). It has emerged from discussion that sustainable tourism is faced with a plethora of challenges with regards to developing sustainable tourism in developing countries. Such challenges are somewhat relative to these countries. They include the following but not limited to; poorly funded tourism, narrow product ranges, infrastructural and facilities challenges, untrained personnel, disregard for local communities, ineffective marketing, diseases, climate change, donor dependency and political influence ( Desczynski, 2011; Moswete & Dube, 2011; COMESA, 2012).

            Despite the challenges that have been discussed in length above, affirmative action has to be taken in addition to existing efforts towards sustainable tourism development in developing countries. What is needed now is a new era of economic growth that is rather forceful and at the same time socially and environmentally sustainable (UNCSD, 2007). Implicit in the above is that stern measures should be taken in pursuit of a common sustainable future bearing in mind the ecological repercussions of proposed interventions on tourism in developing countries. It is regrettable that these developing countries are mostly former colonies and do not have enough capacity to effectively implement successful sustainable tourism development initiatives within their borders because some of the problems emanate elsewhere and find their way into their tourism industry through porous policies and legislation. However, as suggested, pragmatic social, economic and ecologically sustainable tourism development initiatives are the path to success.

 

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Book Critique; Salami-Boukari, S. (2012). African literature: Gender discourse, religious values and the African worldview. Lagos. African Heritage Press. 243 pages. ISBN: 9780979085857

Salami-Boukari, S. (2012). African literature: Gender discourse, religious values and the African worldview. Lagos. African Heritage Press. 243 pages. ISBN: 9780979085857 Genre Literature (African). Synopsis A saliently moving and enlightening comparative analysis of African literature that unpacks gender issues, religious values and African worldview in relation to African cultural economic systems in an interdisciplinary approach. It does so from a feminist perspective and yet does not disdain African male writers and or men despite their conscious and unconscious attempts of putting women on the back burner.Audience The book targets; students, scholars, teacher educators, teachers and general readers of literature. Biography Born in Togo, Dr. Safoura A. Salami-Boukari Studied in Togo, France and the United States. She holds a Ph.D., and MA in American Studies with majors in Global Women’s Studies from the University of New York. She has taught at the University of Benin (1987-1994), the State University of New York in Buffalo (1996-1998), and was a Visiting Professor in the Center for Women’s Studies, and a Research Consultant at the Center for Black Culture and Research at West Virginia University (1998- 2000). She is currently teaching Social Studies and Humanities in the College of Arts and Sciences at Western Illinois University. NB: The above is a book whose contents are purely from a literature point of view written by an internationally acclaimed African scholar. It appears to argue for or against various assertions and observations from a feminist point of view, yet also balancing the scale with African male writers who have hitherto enjoyed plaudits more than female writers. The interesting question that may arise therefrom is how, then, does an African literature book entice or court the attention of the concept citizenship education, used hereinafter, as a perspective and lens to 1 | Page

critique the work of Salami-Boukari. Citizenship education which is globally construed in guise as social studies prime goal (Boadu, 2013) is relative to gender issues, religious values and global mindedness which are evidently inherent in the title of the book under critique. Attempts have been made to view every point raised and discussed herein from a citizenship perspective especially that this is an assignment under a postgraduate course on Citizenship Education. Preface As the author alludes at the initial stage and indeed the extension of the same by the view of this critique, the book offers a foundation for the understanding of African literature not just by women but their counterparts too, men. Such a rare, partial attempt to unpack African literature to the reader is commendable for its gender sensitivity in this globalized world. This gender compromise that the author coins as the “Kemetic Paradigm” is understood to be developed further in an upcoming study. Indeed great writers cease writing in their death. Implicit in her work is the conflict of Africanism and the Western imperialism, an engagement that becomes crucial to citizenship education in terms of the effects of globalization or grossly put, colonialism. These are controversially striking issues which the teaching and learning of citizenship education should perceptibly pivot around. Introduction Like it is common within the teaching cadre, publications are usually occasioned by teaching experience and the dire need to improve one’s own practice, Salami-Boukari is no exception in this regard. Her experience and pursuit are tied with perspectives of other African writers (male & female) and on the one hand, the compulsion to bring a better understanding of the relationship between cultural factors and the impact of colonialization on people without turbulence and adversity which becomes relevant for citizenship education in culturally diverse classrooms. Social studies which houses citizenship education, is viewed as an inter-disciplinary subject that draws its content from other disciplines (Adeyemi, 2010; Kottchar, 1984). It is on this note that this critique finds the inter-disciplinary perspective as beneficial since it reveals among others and in no particular order; gender perceptions, male/female relationships, marriage issues, female circumcision, suicide and body modifications. The above are just some of citizenship education concepts involving human rights and gender issues, hence this critiques position of adopting a citizenship education lens. 2 | Page

This two hundred and forty three page sewn piece of work is an extension of her book titled, Gender and Cultural Issues in Igbo Society. It is basically divided into six distinct yet related parts, the first on cultural beliefs and practices in a traditional setting. The second and third parts highlights cultural and gender intersections religiously and profane. The fourth section illuminates a comparative view of character delineation through the eyes of African writers. The feminist and fifth part explores the African women’s voice but not dismissing the male voice. Lastly, the sixth part, a summary of preceding parts, reflects on arts and activism through a comparative approach and contemporary African society. In due course, Salami-Boukari provides answers to questions like; what place did the traditional African woman occupy prior to westernization, what impact did colonization have on west African women in terms of economic power, why is it almost impossible, especially for the African woman to participate in the national or international fora today. The above are exciting points of departure for African citizenship education and to a great extent to the interconnected global village, in particular, for the young western populace to realize the effects of the deeds of their ancestors which Africans continue to toil with daily. Part one Historical background and methodology This part alleges that three quarters of people in the world have their lives greatly influenced by colonization as seen politically and economically yet such influence is less evident and rhetorically buried. Literature comes in handy to reveal the buried secrets of history with post- colonial writers decoding such secrets through writing and making the voice of the silenced heard. One area that needs decoding as noted by Salami-Boukari was the misconception by colonizers that we did not have a history, social, political or religious institutions. It can thus be seen that literature can be incorporated into the teaching of citizenship education, besides, part of the goal of citizenship education is to make people aware of the political and economic processes of the governments of their countries before that of the world. On the back foot though, post-colonial writers of this world were predominantly men with a few female faces. The implication of the above is a sad tale wherein women are pushed to the periphery and back seat in societal decision making forums. Women in these writings as well as 3 | Page

in society are wrongly subjugated, enslaved and portrayed as impotent to participate and contribute in global political issues. But contrariwise, there was some sense of egalitarianism in Africa and Europe whereby socio-politically and economically, men and women roles changed due to industrialization and human contact of the two continents. The point of human contact implies immigration which is critical to citizenship education from a multicultural point of view. The writer diplomatically and tersely sheds light on this issue without ambiguity, distortion or stepping the toes of male writers in this regard. This further cements the idea that literature can be incorporated into the teaching of social studies and citizenship education. Part two Sociological issues in Igbo society It is interesting to note how sociological issues discussed under the auspices of Igbo society and in some instances to the general African context can so much reveal citizenship education concepts through literature than the traditional social studies textbook. Looking at the contemporary West African women in general, there is some form of subordination in a male dominated society but within the Igbo society, roles were founded on shared complementarities by men and women. Even though women sat behind men in gatherings, it is alleged that there was a “dual sexual management and governance” (p.16). What excites this critique from the quote is the term “governance” which can translate to running a country in the modern context, alas, the contemporary world is so much preoccupied with male domination in governing positions and settings like political parties that end up as governors of states. This is an interesting point of discussion for citizenship to try and reveal why the status quo is the exact opposite of the past. One would object that rites of passage and ritual practices especially that involve female pubic areas should not in the first place be allowed space in citizenship education documents, but this critique opine that they indeed have a place, more so that they involve human and children rights envisioned in the Universal Human Rights Charter by the United Nations. The author insists that they have to be tackled from a neutral point of view and careful use of descriptive language for purposes of objectivity and accuracy. The same gesture should be extended to citizenship education teaching and learning to avoid bias and discrimination as issues are not absolute but relative. The book uses the beauty of women as an aesthetic example that in Africa a woman 4 | Page

should have more flesh and roundness whilst the western standpoint is such that a woman should be slender and mannequin in shape. This implies that discussion of citizenship education issues can never leave people in agreement, in fact there will always be varied responses and opinions. It is the opinion of this critique that inasmuch as this book took the feminist approach to discussing issues and the gender fairness adopted from the beginning, which is even lauded by this paper, now takes a different twist to show men as violent and demeaning to women in marriage and society giving the example of respected male traditional doctors (dibia) whereby the same is not extended to a female dibia. Citizenship education cannot be seen to be overlooking these societal inequalities because they consequentially become national catastrophe’s and to a larger extent global calamities where there are the rich and poor, developed and undeveloped, black and white, east and west etc. Part three Religion in African literature and implications for today’s society The above chosen title for part three of the book by the author sits perfectly well with citizenship education and its implication for today’s society meaning that the two are inseparable, at least according to the view of this critique. The book uses religion to illuminate ecumenist issues between Africa and Europe. It shows that in the beginning Africans were content with their African Traditional Religions which were subsequently dismissed as barbaric by the western missionaries who imposed their Christian religion upon the blacks. Controversial and striking as the above assertion maybe, it has to be pursued by citizenship education without fear or favor because “man, as a supernatural being, needs religion or at least to belief in something beyond his visible being…” (p.78). There is also a fascinating factor in that, much as African Traditional Religion above the equator is polytheistic in nature, most parts of the Southern hemisphere are monotheistic which is also a common element to worldly religions that bow using the three names; the father, son and holy spirit like Christianity. These differences in religion and denomination has the inherent capacity to boost citizenship education or become its nemesis. The point is, we live in a religiously diverse world wherein tolerance is pivotal to this plurality placing question tags on countries (Nigeria, Saudi Arabia and Iran), societies and schools (Netherlands) which are still divided 5 | Page

along religious lines (Vuegelers, 2011). In this sense, global citizenship education is needed more than ever before. Salami-Boukari uses Echewa’s book The Land’s Lord, at the advantage of this critique and citizenship education in general to discuss international movement of missionaries as evangelical people to and within the African land without travel documents or visas as is the global trend nowadays. These people were welcomed and held in high regard without ever been regarded as strangers or foreigners. What then captures the attention of this critique is why all of a sudden has the West instituted strict visa restrictions for African visitors at their countries whilst we initially welcomed them into Africa and even let them depart with loads of raw materials that which they turned into highly priced goods we cannot afford. Be that as it may, the issue of immigration revealed through African literature, brings in the concept of citizenship education. Part four Character depictions In this part of the book, the author kick starts a perfect case of being unsatisfied with what you have and are, using a woman named Efuru who is in a transitional position trying to fulfill obligations of a traditional pre-colonial society and does not by any chance hesitate to resort to new western means when necessary. This is akin to what Frantz Fanon depicts in his globally lauded book (Black Skin White Mask), essentially questioning our native and unique Africanism to westernization (Fanon, 1986). However, just like Fanon, Salami-Boukari depicts the unfortunate effects of colonization as to blame since this woman had personally paid her bride price as an economically independent woman, who nevertheless, is seen otherwise in a community which holds onto rigorous gender roles. It is against this backdrop that citizenship education should embrace emergent gender theories to sweep clean our societies of these gendered misconceptions and prejudices (Mannathoko, 1999). Besides, this is not an African problem per se, it is a global concern especially in developing countries other than Africa like in South America. It is a sad tale that in every community “men and women are expected to behave in certain specific manners and are in turn talked or judged according to their social status as fathers and mothers or wives” (p.122). Citizenship education should be seen destroying these gendered barriers in the classroom with resource materials like 6 | Page

textbooks depicting what is actually on the ground, not stereotypes that contradict traditional approaches (African) with postmodern activism (European). Part five African women’s voice: Critical and comparative perspectives This is one part of the book where the writer punches below the belt in trying to show how men as early writers sidelined women in their literature. It would be wrong and unbecoming of this critique to dismiss her fierce approach in its entirety because she is lauded with using “just a simple down to earth expression of disagreement or difference” (p.xv) where men and women writers are compared. At the outset, the author shows how two male writers writing in the same era portray women in contradicting representations of African womanhood possibly because of “the traumatic effects of our confrontation with Europe” (p.135). The woman role is thus seen as ambiguous in a patriarch world by these writers after being educated in western schools and unconsciously copying domesticity of women. This gender bias is attacked by women writers like Nwapa and Nandakumar at the rise of African feminism challenging traditional marriage practices like widow inheritance. Their characters are just what citizenship education prescribes since they refuse to be submissive without questioning the status quo. The writers thoroughly deal with the predicament of African women in general and the gendered social constructs. Through the citizenship education lens, these predicaments will be approached from a global perspective in that they are also relative to other parts of the worlds. It should be the task of citizenship education to put both the girl and boy child on an equal footing under the auspices of gender and human rights. What commits citizenship education to this book in contextualizing North African literature is the mention of the arrival of Muslims or Arabs into Africa. Notwithstanding the already embryonic Christianity, there was now a conflicting religion (Islam) in the mix of North Africa. Inevitably, tensions between the West and Arab worlds have led to their fighting in Africa for resources like minerals and even at international organizations level like ASEAN and EU. In context, these religious and international order matters adds spice to citizenship education regardless of the crossroads they may present. In fact, controversial issues are regarded as the 7 | Page

perfect recipe for citizenship education as envisioned in the famous British citizenship education report (Crick, 1998). Part six Reflections on arts and women’s activism This is the last part of the book where comparative African literature is used to reveal gender issues, religious values and the African global view of issues. It does so with some kind of reflection on the previous parts of the book and needlessly reiterating what has been discussed above. This critique finds it imperative to sum up the issues which are raised therefrom African literature and as a matter of fact generalizations and concepts undergirding citizenship education. These issues include but not limited to; social justice, distribution of wealth, poverty, cultural practices, gender roles, male and female relationships, religious pluralism, feminism, marriage, migration, racism, governance etc. Although it is not so much of a concern, this critique opines that unavailability of Southern, Eastern and Central African literature could have helped the author spread her wings to include other African issues found within African literature and related to citizenship education that may otherwise have escaped the pen of Western and Northern African writers like same sex marriages which are apparently legalized in some parts of Africa. Summary Salami-Boukari has aesthetically brought together various African literature (West & North Africa) to comparatively illuminate gender discourse, religious values and the African world view of issues which are inevitably concomitant and congruent to citizenship education, hence this critique. It has emerged from history that, women writers and indeed African women have been subjugated and prejudiced with men taking high stakes position in writing circles and society. Emergent feminist’s theories have elevated the status of women. Religion has also been used to show how rites of passage and rituals stamp on the human rights especially those of women with specific reference to circumcision and marriage. These conclusions are extended to other parts of Africa despite their origins in upper Africa. However, such relativeness is appreciated by this critique because issues discussed like gender discrimination are also visible 8 | Page

across the world albeit with varied levels of manifestation. It is interesting to see if future publications can attempt to comparatively assess African literature in view of citizenship education as this book has done with so much pride and dexterity.