Introduction Over the past years, there has been paradoxically, a significant decline and death in the many wildlife ungulates like the wildebeest in the Kalahari system and comparatively, the buffalo in the Northern system of Botswana (Cullen, 2014; Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). This uncongenial scenario has consequently led to the depletion of wildlife to a threshold that demands a drastic response from policy and human beings (Chobe Wildlife Trust as cited in Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). Such measures included for example water provision and restricted game hunting (Department of Wildlife & National Parks, 2013). It is on this note that these essays purports to critically and relatively discuss the development of game ranching in the Northern and Kalahari systems of Botswana. The stand is thus adopted based on the assumption that game ranching has the inherent ability to turn around the situation. The benefits and repercussions that can ensue there from will be discussed inter alia the two systems as well as drawing from other countries who have somewhat excelled in the industry like South Africa and Namibia (Kgamanyane, 2016). Game ranching in Botswana context An abridgment description of game ranching involves the extensive management of wildlife on a fenced land (Republic of Botswana, 2002) and or unfenced land (Conybeare & Rozemeijer, 1991). In extension, authors Mossmann and Mossmann (1976) posits that the management of wildlife and land alluded to above entails amongst others, the application of scientific knowledge for the mutual benefit of all life. Its development in Botswana has been rather slow due to the reliance on cattle farming. However, the subsequent game ranching policy and government support saw its steady grow. In fact there were 111 ranches in 2012 with the potential for upsurge (Boast, 2014). The Kalahari and Northern systems For purposes of discussion unfolding herein, the Kalahari system is referred to as the areas below the Makgadikgadi pans down to include the Ghanzi and Kgalagadi districts. These places generally typify land degradation (Reed, Stringer, Dougill, Perkins, Atlhopheng, Mulale & Farvetto, 2015) and fortunately game ranches have the capacity to rehabilitate such (Republic of Tanzania, 2000). In their view, Ghanzi District Council (2003) posits that the area is predominantly covered in deep sands and grass with a profound reliance on underground water. GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI &NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA On the one hand, the Northern system will be discussed under the parameters stretching from the Okavango, Makgadikgadi and Chobe enclaves. The area begins in the north-west where the delta drains inland from Angola and the central north-east with large flat plains logged with saline waters (Burgess, 2006) as well as the Chobe which benefits from Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. According to Perkins and Ringrose (1996) “the Northern systems which have permanently available surface water are characterized by higher large herbivore biomass (LHB). The area is also home to water dependent species e.g. buffalo (Murray as cited in Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). Figure 1: Part of the Kalahari system Figure 2: Part of the Northern system Images retrieved from www.googlearth.com The unique colours of both aerial images representing the Kalahari (Figure 1) and Northern (Figure 2) offer contrasting descriptions of the two systems. The brown colour reminiscent of the Kalahari implies the arid and barren nature of the system cynically called the “thirst land” (Parsons, 2016) as compared to the greenish Northern system typical of water abundance of the area especially during wet periods. Some game ranching species in the Kalahari and Northern systems Table 1 Gemsbok Red hartebeest Eland Blue wildebeest Springbok Warthog Impala Waterbuck Kudu Zebra Ostrich Tessebe Adopted from BWPA (2005) GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI & NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA Having brought the curtain down herein with the introduction, brief contextual situation of local game ranching, synopsis of both systems as the focal point and listing some game species, this essay will at this juncture essentially delineate the case of game ranching development in Botswana. In doing so, local, regional and international examples concomitant to the success and or failure of the enterprise will be used for clarity. A significant effort will be made to overly streamline the discussion as much as possible to Botswana with particular reference to the Kalahari and Northern systems. Significance and nemesis of game ranching development to Botswana For starters, game ranching enterprise is economically viable (Snyder, 1996). This assertion is also substantiated by studies carried out regionally by researchers Lindsey, Barnes, Nyirenda, Tambling and Taylor (2013) and Bezuidenhout (2012) among others. The former group suggesting 15.7 millions of USD in Zambia and the latter 960 million ZAR in South Africa just from auction sales. The fact that the enterprise is viewed with the potential to bring financial gains testifies the need to pursue and harness it for our benefit. However, in offering plaudits upon game ranching viability, comparison of Botswana game ranching potential with regional neighbours should be done with caution. This is because such countries have a proven track record and evolved over time reducing capital outlay needed to run them whilst ours is still in its infancy (Conybeare & Rosemeijer as cited in Molefe, 2002). Thus, Botswana has at her disposal the opportune prospect of maneuvering game ranching in both the Kalahari and Northern systems. It is also profoundly imperative to highlight that chances of the enterprise in the Kalahari can be expensive due to issues of restocking (Tacheba, Mahailwe & Dailey, 1991) necessitated by the decline in animal species like red hartebeest (Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). In their view, Lindsey et al., (2013) posits that game meat sourced from game ranching provides an alternative to beef and poultry meat. Even though their observation was made in the Zambian industry, this essay finds it’s relevant to discuss the issue relative to Botswana. This is in light with the continued and persistent outbreak of the Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) in the Northern system (BWPA, 2005), not forgetting the disastrous contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) disease (Burgess, 2006). These deadly cattle diseases degenerate the viability of livestock production in the Northern system in light of the stringent Botswana Meat Commission (BMC) and European Union (EU) slaughtering policies, hence the recommendation GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI &NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA of game ranching as an alternative step. On the contrary though, the Kalahari system has not experienced any major animal disease outbreaks as compared to the Northern system. However, this is not to imply that the Kalahari is somewhat devoid of animal diseases. Above all, studies have revealed that wildlife is better adapted to the African environment than livestock (Wildlife Campus, 2013; Molefe, 2002). Intensified game ranching provides for diversification of the economic activities in Botswana as part of the Economic Diversification Drive (EDD) strategy through developing new enterprises (Daily News, 2013; Republic of Botswana, 2002). Game ranching is one such development. The status quo is such that, though the Northern system is economically reliant of tourism of which game ranching is part of, much of eco-tourism activities do not occur in private game ranches. Thus, game ranching brings in a different economic perspective to the system like job creation for communities to flanking ranches. Besides privately owned ranches, communities can be empowered through Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRMs) and Community Based Organizations (CBOs) and Community Trusts (Arntzen, 2003). The same benefits can potentially be extended to game ranching in the Kalahari system. The development of game ranching in Botswana continues to meet with a plethora of obstacles wherein one problem can in turn be an advantage when comparing the Northern and Kalahari systems. The point is, what inhibits game ranching in the Northern system may not necessarily impede the industry in the Kalahari. For example, in their consultative work, ecologists Perkins and Ringrose (1996) found out that tourism in the northern Botswana has significantly broadened due to close proximity with the Zambezi system where facilities are in abundance. Contrariwise, White as cited in Perkins and Ringrose (1996) alludes that tourism is minimal due to the districts inaccessibility to services. It is profoundly imperative to mention that the study mentioned supra did not by any means target game ranching, nevertheless this essay finds it possible to technically relate their findings to the viability of the development of game ranching in both the Kalahari and Northern systems because the industry falls within the parameters of tourism. The Kalahari system finds itself trailing behind the Northern system with regards to the financial and economic value of game ranching partly due to the absence of high value species in the industry like elephant and buffalo which are in abundance in the latter system (Arntzen, 2003). This is further being compounded by tourist preferences that tend to tilt towards the north GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI & NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA where the big five species are visible (Cousins, Sadler & Evans, 2008). It may be argued on the contrary that, species absent from the Kalahari can be translocated to the south, but alas, there are ethical issues as per CITES and policy regulations as well as exuberant expenses to incur as suggested by the former state president Sir Ketumile Masire (Daily News, 2016). Using Sir Ketumile Masire Sekoma ranch as a case study, the Kalahari is beaten to the finish line by the Northern system in water availability. The Daily News (2016) emphatically cautions that without sufficient water, captured species as in game ranching are at a death risk. In his study, which otherwise focused on goats locally, Derry (2004) vigilantly cautions about the strenuous distances animals have to travel to water sources as an impediment to their grazing patterns. This concern is however limited in danger in the Northern systems because it generally has enough water for species. Counter statements may hasten to mention the option of drilled boreholes in the Kalahari which is good, but that is mitigated by the saline underground water unpalatable to animals (Burgess, 2006). Game ranching development in Botswana is to some extent constrained by policies that have over the years over emphasized wildlife conservation and empowerment of people than more economically oriented perspectives towards fauna and flora (Arntzen, 2003). In the view of this essay, game ranching provides a conceptual framework for such paradigm shift. As it stands, the industry will cover what the policies purports to and offer something economically. Such areas for conservation are abundant in the Northern than in the Kalahari system, safe for the CKGR and Gemsbok National Park. As an antidote to correct the above anomaly about game ranching in Botswana’s systems as elsewhere is the “political will” needed towards the realization of the full potential of the industry (Musengezi, 2010). Much political attention seems to be pushed towards the Northern system with greater efforts made towards the sustainable use of the Northern system especially the Okavango delta which is seen as the jewel of world tourism (Burgess, 2006) overlooking the dry Kalahari system. A lot of game proof fences around Botswana were politically erected whilst others were rightfully erected to control diseases (BWPA, 2005) whilst also wrongfully restricting the natural movements of species (Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). The huge presence of elephants in the Northern system acts as an impediment to fencing ranches since the wildlife has to be enclosed in most cases (Tacheba, Mahabile & Dailey, 1991). There is already a concern that the elephants are destroying the buffalo fence intended to curb the GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI &NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA spread of FMD in the region. A subsequent of concern for the game rancher will therefore be increased fencing expenses caused by elephants’ destruction to and from drinking areas. That is if the fences cut across their natural movements. Comparatively, this is not a concern for an ordinary game ranching enterprise in the Kalahari system. Conclusion “In the emergent Africa you either use wildlife or lose it” (Myers in Krueter & Workman, 1997; p.171). Although this statement may sound cynical and sarcastic, it perfectly fits the state of game ranching even locally. The point is Africa and Botswana in particular have a rich varied species of wildlife that have to be used through economic, sustainable and conservative enterprises akin to game ranching than losing it through consumptive methods like poaching. Governments, Botswana inclusive, should not be fearful of game ranching especially that it is subject to stricter CITES regulations (Republic of Tanzania, 2000). Hence management and control will not necessarily be a grave issue. The Kalahari and Northern systems present diverse chances for the industry in Botswana more so that the two systems are rather different ecologically offering ranchers and tourists’ options in terms of experiencing the fauna and flora of Botswana. What is important especially in complex savanna systems like the Kalahari and Northern Botswana is to make sure policy actions are guided by expert empirical research (Kgosikoma, Mojeremane & Harvie, 2013). As such, the development of game ranching as a sustainable land use option and economic incentive for biodiversity conservation in the Kalahari and Northern systems is viable for Botswana (Chomba, Obias, & Nyirenda, 2014). GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI & NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA References Arntzen, J. W. (2003). An economic view on wildlife management areas (WMAs) in Botswana. The Wildlife Conservation Union. Bezuidenhout, R. (2012). Game auction trends in 2012. Retrieved from http://www.farmersweekly.co.za/article.aspx?id=34535&h=Game-auction-trends-in-2012 Boast, L. (2014). Exploring the causes of and mitigation options for human-predator conflict on game ranches in Botswana: How is coexistence possible? Doctoral Dissertation: University of Cape Town. Burgess, J. (2006). Country pasture/forage resource profiles. Food Agricultural Organization (FAO). Chomba, C., Obias, C., & Nyirenda, T. (2014). Game Ranching: A Sustainable Land Use Option and Economic Incentive for Biodiversity Conservation in Zambia. Open Journal of Ecology, 4, 571-581.doi.org/10.4236/oje.2014.49047 Conybeare, A., & Rozemeijer, N. G. (1991). Game ranching area assessment work plan. United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Cousins, J. A., Sadler, J. P., & Evans, J. (2008). Exploring the role of private wildlife ranches as a conservation tool: Stakeholder perspectives. Ecology & Society, 13(2), 43. Retrieved from www.ecologysociety.org Cullen, T. (2014). World parks congress 2014: Parks, people & planet. Koedoe, 57(1), 1338 1341. doi: 10.4102/koedoe.v5i1.1338 Daily News. (November, 2013). State of the nation address: SONA 2013. Botswana Press Agency (BOPA).Gaborone; Botswana. Daily News. (January, 2016). Masire loses 89 Zebras. Botswana Press Agency (BOPA).Gaborone; Botswana. Derry, J. F. (2004). Phiospheres in semi-arid rangelands: Consequences of spatially constrained plant-herbivore interactions. Doctoral Dissertation: University of Edinburg. Ghanzi District Council. (2003). Ghanzi District Development Plan 6: 2003-2009. Ministry of Local Government. Gaborone; Botswana. Kgamanyane, J. (2016, 19 February). Botswana urged to embrace game ranching. Weekend Post. Retrieved from http://www.weekendpost.co.bw GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI &NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA Kgosikoma, O. E., Mojeremane, W., & Harvie, B. A. (2013). Government management systems & their effects on savanna ecosystems: A review. Journal of Ecology & Natural Environment, 5(6), 88-94.doi: 10.5897 Krueter, U. P., & Workman, J. P. (1997). Comparative profitability of cattle & wildlife ranches in semi-arid Zimbabwe. Journal of Arid Environments, 35, 171-187. doi: 10.1006/jare Lindsey, P. A., Barnes, J., Nyirenda, Y., Tambling, C., & Taylor,W. (2013). The Zambian game ranching industry: Scale, associated benefits & limitations affecting its development. Wildlife Producers Association of Zambia (WAPZA). Molefe, J. I. (2002). Multi-criteria analysis of game and cattle ranching in the Kgalagardi District; Botswana. The case of Matsheng. Master’s Thesis: University of Botswana. Mossmann, S. L., & Mossmann, A. S. (1976). Wildlife utilization and game ranching. Report on a study of recent progress in this field in Southern Africa. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Morges; Switzerland. Musengezi, J. (2010). Wildlife utilization on private land: Understanding the economics of game ranching in South Africa. Doctoral Dissertation: University Of Florida Pekins, J. S., & Ringrose, S. M. (1996). A study of livestock/wildlife/tourism degradation linkages. Development cooperation objectives & beef protocol. European Commission. Final Report. Annex 1. Gaborone; Botswana. Pekins, J. S., & Ringrose, S. M. (1996). A study of livestock/wildlife/tourism degradation linkages. Development cooperation objectives & beef protocol. European Commission. Final Report. Annex 2. Gaborone; Botswana. Reed, M. S., Stringer, L. C., Dougill, A. J., Perkins, J. S., Atlhopheng, J. R., Mulale, K., & Farvetto, N. ( 2015). Reorienting land degradation towards sustainable land management: Linking sustainable livelihoods with ecosystem services in rangeland systems. Journal of Environmental Management, 151, 472-485. Retrieved from www.elsevier.com Republic of Botswana. (2002). Game ranching policy for Botswana. Ministry of Trade, Industry, Wildlife & Tourism. Gaborone; Botswana. Republic of Tanzania. (2000). Policy guidelines for game farming & game ranching in Tanzania. Ministry of Natural Resources & Tourism. Dar Es Lam; Tanzania. GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI & NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA Department of Wildlife & National Parks. (2013). Aerial census of animals in Botswana: 2012 Dry Season. Ministry of Trade, Industry, Wildlife & Tourism. Gaborone; Botswana. Parsons, N. (2016) Bechuanaland; Republic of Botswana. Britannica Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/place/Botswana . Snyder, D. (1996). Commercialization of wild game ranching: Enterprise budgets. Economic Research Institute. Retrived from www.digitalcomms.usu.edu/eri/111 Tacheba, G., Mahabile, W., & Dailey, J. (eds.). (October, 1991). The potential for increasing livestock productivity in Botswana. Proceedings of the livestock production workshop. Ministry of Agriculture. Gaborone; Botswana. Wildlife Campus. (2013). The trend towards game ranching in Southern Africa. ABSA Bank.
Sustainable Tourism Development in developing countries
Introduction
"A global agenda for change”
this was what Brundtland’s team was tasked with in pursuit of long-term
environmental strategies for achieving sustainable development by the year 2000
and beyond (World Commission on Environment &
Development, 1987). Amongst the developments that subsequently came up
was the extension of the same to sustainable tourism towards a common future.
The discussion that follows henceforth will be premised on the challenges of
sustainable tourism development in developing countries. Morgan (1999) alludes that there exists a
nexus of questions about the practicality of achieving sustainable tourism by
developing countries. Paradoxically, Rizio and Gios (2014) emphasis that “in
practice, the application of the conceptual framework for sustainable tourism
development is not straight forward particularly where natural resources are
concerned” (p. 2381).
In discussing sustainable tourism
development in developing countries, it is imperative that this essay adopts a
position relative to the Millennium Summit of 2000 whose cornerstones were
construed as a panacea to sustainable development in developing countries and
tourism is seen as one such inventiveness to pursue (Deszczynski, 2011). Hence,
the adopted trajectory of briefly looking at developing countries, sustainable
development, sustainable tourism and to a larger extent unpacking the
challenges militating against sustainable tourism development in developing
countries.
Developing
countries
The United Nations, World Bank and
literature in general display a lack of universally agreed definition of what
constitutes a developing country. Terms like “less developed countries”,
“landlocked developing countries” and “small island developing countries” are
used interchangeably. The judgement to that effect is pronounced on the grounds
of the low level of such countries per capital income (World Bank, 2008). They
are mostly countries who have been former colonies experiencing socio-economic
challenges such as poverty (Mirskii, 2010).
Sustainable
development
The United Nations Economic
Commission of Africa (2009) maintains that the Stockholm Conference of 1972 and
the Brundland Report of 1987 opened gates for the analytical approach to the
challenges of sustainable development. Sustainable development is thus development
that meets the needs of the present without in any way compromising the
inherent ability of future generations to meet their own needs (United Nations
Commission on Sustainable Development, 2007). In essence, the implied
development should be a double edged sword to tackle current challenges yet
also thinking of the long term picture.
Sustainable
tourism development
In their study,
Dong et al (2004) posits that sustainable tourism development is a high stake
issue in global fora on long trends in tourism destination development. They
also conclude that this ecological undertaking is tilted more towards
developing countries than their developed counterparts. The concept became the
buzzword after the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED)
Report of 1987 axing around the interrelatedness of social, economic and
ecological sustainability (Mbaiwa, 2005).
Besides being viewed in light of the
present and future, sustainable tourism is according to the United Nations
World Tourism Organization (1994) “envisaged as leading to the management of
all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be
fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological
processes…” (p. 30). Thus, this form of tourism has the ability to transform
the socio-economic and ecological levels of developing countries sustainably.
Challenges
militating against sustainable tourism development in developing countries
Despite their variability in nature,
the challenges to be discussed hereunder basically trickles down to economic,
social and environmental aspects (United Nations Environmental Programme, 2012).
However, some challenges are policy and politically oriented thus further
hampering sustainable tourism development in host destinations like Botswana
(Mbaiwa, 2015).
To begin with, sustainable tourism
development in developing countries is faced with a plethora of climate change
effects such as unprecedented disease outbreaks (Moswete & Dube, 2011). In
extension, Rutty and Scott (2016) highlights that “weather and climate
represent a key element of the natural resource base of a tourism destination and
this is an important consideration in tourist decision making” (p. 2). As such,
sustainable tourism development in developing countries that focus on the
natural base alluded to above is poised to suffer consequently. Regionally, one
can think of Botswana tourism in the northern system which is profoundly
reliant on the Okavango Delta which once experienced some in flooding
uncongenially leading to loss of revenue, jobs and declined livelihoods of the
locals (Moswete & Dube, 2011).
Weaver (2012) posits that
intervention measures should be supported by government and the private sector
in order to yield tangible benefits and to address local sustainability issues
against climate change. However, developing countries face a huge challenge of
expertise and financial backing to counter climate change (Milazi, 1996;
Fazendin, 2009). The situation is exacerbated by misconceptions of what entails
climate change and lack of awareness that tourist behaviours like travelling
patterns also effect climate change (Dillimono & Dickinson, 2014)
It is generally held that
sustainable tourism development can economically emancipate developing
countries from poverty (UNWTO, 1994). However, the situation on the ground is
the exact opposite. A study by Mbaiwa (2005) on the socio-economic impacts of
enclave tourism in the Okavango Delta; Botswana, revealed the challenge of
repatriation of tourism revenue by dominating foreign owned tourist operations
as is the case with many developing countries. At the time, 70% of tourism
revenue generated locally was repatriated outside Botswana. In this light,
developing countries are thus handicapped in their pursuit for sustainable
tourism development because the proceeds that accrue there from tourism should
also benefit the local people and to a larger extent biodiversity conservation
in the whole country (Mbaiwa, 2015). A similar trend was also revealed in Kenya
by authors Akama and Kieti (2007) when reviewing the status of tourism and
socio-economic development in developing countries using Kenya as a case study.
It is also highly imperative to note
here on the contrary that, the paradox of foreign exchange leakage (United
Nations Commission for Sustainable Development, 1999) is through policy avoided
in some developing countries which better positions them to benefit from
tourism. Botswana’s neighbours in the west; Namibia, rightfully retains more
revenue than the former because of an indigenized international airline
operations. In this mix-up, Zimbabwe has an almost similar airline approach to
Namibia yet she does not retain tourism revenue largely due to the declining
Zimbabwean Dollar (Mbaiwa, 2005). On a mass tourist scale which is unlike the
pursuit for our common future, Mauritius tourism is monopolized by large
international groups like Sun International (Southern African Development
Community, 2009). The above examples are testimony to the assertion that the
tourism industry is a complex business whereby technical expertise and research
are pivotal to achieving sustainable tourism development by developing
countries with regards to devising and implementing sustainable plans, policies
and projects (Gartner, 2008).
Buchsbaum (2004) presupposes
that sustainable tourism development in developing countries is somewhat
hampered by insufficient environmental education knowledge by the majority of
stakeholders involved. It is the opinion of this essay that the allegedly lack
of environmental education has its roots in the education systems and
curriculum models adopted by developing countries. Using Botswana as a case
study for further clarity on this stand, the status quo is such that environmental
education where the concept of sustainable tourism is housed, its teaching and
learning is from an infusion perspective. That is, it does not stand alone as a
curriculum subject but rather amalgamated into other existing high stake
subjects. The issues related to sustainable tourism development are infused into
Social Studies, Science, Cultural Studies, Environmental Science and Creative
and Performing Arts at levels preceding tertiary education (Department of
Curriculum Development & Evaluation, 2005)
The subsequent nemesis of this concoction
is lack of a sustainable tourism development base. As Buchsbaum (2004) notes
“the hope is that education can build environmental ethos…” (p. 67). These are
the ethos needed by an individual who is to function well in a community where
sustainable tourism development is crucial to the ecological future of the
global world. If the status quo is left to persist, then our education
graduates will eternally serve as an antidote to the efforts of achieving
sustainability in tourism.
A regional study conducted by SADC
(2009) has indicated that a variety of sustainable tourism development
initiatives exist in the SADC region to promote the social, economic and
ecological sustainability in the region. Yet, these efforts often replicate and
compete with one another. Thus, the logical conclusion that can be deduced here
is that developing countries are technically challenged. In this instance,
everything boils down to lack of managerial skills and professional approach (Urquhart,
1998). On the other hand though, this essay hastens to posit that, replicating
policies and projects without careful consideration for the sovereign and local
settings in developing countries which is so much varied is a challenge
precipitated by the very policy developers and reformers with poor planning.
Developmental programs like Sustainable Tourism for Eliminating Poverty (STEP)
by the UNWTO have failed in some countries (Gartner, 2008). Moreover, Manwa and
Manwa (2014) cautions that one size fits all strategies do not always pen out
well in sustainable tourism development.
The traditional reliance on
agriculture by most developing countries has meant that every effort is made to
protect the industry or develop it. Within the Southern African region, such
efforts have included erection of veterinary fences to control animal diseases
like foot and mouth (Botswana Wildlife Producers
Association, 2005) whilst also wrongfully restricting the natural movements of
species (Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). It must be borne in mind that these
movements are migratory routes in search of grazing pastures and water. Thus
altering natural movements is incongruent to sustainable tourism development.
The above situation was observed in
Botswana by Moswete and Dube (2011) that the veterinary fences renders the ecologically
rich Makgadikgadi, Okavango and Chobe out of bounds for animals in other parts
of Botswana consequently threatening their survival which on the bigger picture
is needed for sustainable tourism development.
As has been noted earlier in this
essay by Akama and Keiti (2007) as well as in Mbaiwa (2005) that enclave
tourism has a lot of demerits upon the locals socio-economically, the
International Council on Local Environmental Activities (1999) cautions that,
ecologically the intrusion of large foreign owned tourism enterprises brings
along huge numbers of tourists with high consumption and waste habits into
developing countries which unfortunately do not have adequate waste management
infrastructure. On the extreme, these enclave businesses do not take due care
of the environmental impact of their actions to the extent of exceeding the
carrying capacities of their resorts (Buchsbaum, 2004).
As the ICLEA (1999) hastens, one of the
barriers to sustainable tourism development is over-reliance on a market that
treats our exquisite natural environment and culture as free public goods
leading to insensitive and irresponsible tourism. By contrast, the level of consumption and
waste produced by locals alone is less compared to the foreigners who are
part-time inhabitants of natural areas in developing countries. The
inconsiderate behaviour by businesses and tourists is so much against
governments policies adopted by developing countries like Botswana; “low
volume-high value” approach to sustainable tourism policies (Rozemeijer, 2000).
This is, however, not to imply that all tourists are this bad because some are
educated and responsible travelers in developing countries. Efforts are made to
try and educate travelers to destinations in areas that masses converge like
the Toyota 1000km race in Botswana and Dakar race in Senegal.
Sustainable tourism development in
developing countries also faces a financial challenge in terms of funding for
sustainable projects. Fazendin (2009) points to the fact that this lack thereof
funding has led to a heavy reliance on international help from the west. The
author singles out Mozambique as a state where construction and communication
initiatives across the country are mainly from the international community. In
this case, it is only logical then to question the support of the governments
in developing countries towards sustainable tourism development. The rhetoric of economic recession leading
to reduced government spending and investment in sustainable tourism is
immaterial at this juncture. The government of Botswana has took a major
decision to invest over P50 billion towards the development of Kasane into a
world tourism hub during the 2016-2017 budget. The money is poised to be used
for developments and compensation because some residential areas are to be
demolished to pave way for the Kasane-Kanzungula bridge which is also a
challenge as compensation is never enough (K. Macala, personal communication,
26 April, 2016).
Jamal et al., (2013) indicates that
attention has to be paid towards among others, indigenous people, women and
ethnic minority in developing countries who stand to be impacted by tourism and
neoliberal agendas. From the above, one can pick interestingly something that
is uncommon in most research on sustainable tourism, the role played by
females. This feminist push is somewhat necessary for discussion as a challenge
towards sustainable tourism development in developing countries where women are
traditionally relegated to the background in ecological discourses. On a
demeaning level, their involvement is rather limited to domestic chores in
tourism resorts like preparing food, cleaning and bar-tending.
Human beings have coexisted with
wildlife and the environment since early human evolution. In this context,
people have always cared for wildlife species through totemic cultural
practices like in African Traditional Religion (Mogapi & Mathole, 2013).
However, there were other practices that led to mass killings of wildlife for
community consumption (Ngongolo., Gatsha., & Selwe, 2010).
As countries got more civilized,
policies and legislations were drafted in to control hunting of wildlife
species for game meat in pursuit of sustainable tourism development. For
example, Botswana introduced the nationwide hunting ban in 2014 seeking a
paradigm shift from consumptive tourism to sustainable tourism development
(Daily News, 2013). Consequently, these developments increased poaching for
subsistence use and commercially by large synchronized syndicates. This also
extends to cross border poaching which negatively impact on wildlife
populations and environmental degradation (Republic of Malawi, 2006).
Developing countries are thus challenged to put in place expensive and
technological anti-poaching interventions at the expense of investing in
sustainable tourism development projects. This financial redirection by
governments is also relative to curbing criminality, prostitution, HIV/AIDS and
drug abuse (UNCSD, 1999). A South African study has revealed that if issues
such as crime and security of tourists are not addressed in a concerned and
coordinated manner, tourism in whatever form will be adversely affected
(Ferreira, 1999). The same can be extended to sustainable tourism development
in developing countries.
Due to scientific advancements by
the global world, some experts have experimented with breeding of wildlife
species. Much of these experiments have been in developing countries. The
repercussions that ensue there from can cause changes in the distribution of
phenotypic traits in experimental species, often with inconsiderate biological
and ecological consequences (Bunnefeld & Keane, 2014). These authors
emphasis their assertion with a Zimbabwean experiment that went wrong in trying
to reduce trophy horns in two antelope species and antlers in red deer.
Economical crisis, civil wars and political
turmoil have negative implications for sustainable tourism development (Milazi,
1996). In extending the same, Harrison (1992) cautions that instability in one
country can subsequently affect neighbouring countries transport and
communication systems which are vital for sustainable tourism development. Countries
such as Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, Angola and Namibia were singled out as
states whose civil matters even affected those beyond their territorial
borders. Additionally, Eretria, Ethiopia and Kenya are examples in upper Africa
(Common Market for Eastern & Southern Africa, 2012)
Conclusion
Even though debate on
sustainable tourism development is patchy, disjointed and flawed with scholarly
arguments (Liu, 2010), everything appears to trickle down to discussing sustainable
tourism development from a drift premised on the tenets of the social, economic
and ecological sustainability (Mbaiwa, 2005). It has emerged from discussion
that sustainable tourism is faced with a plethora of challenges with regards to
developing sustainable tourism in developing countries. Such challenges are
somewhat relative to these countries. They include the following but not
limited to; poorly funded tourism, narrow product ranges, infrastructural and
facilities challenges, untrained personnel, disregard for local communities,
ineffective marketing, diseases, climate change, donor dependency and political
influence ( Desczynski, 2011; Moswete & Dube, 2011; COMESA, 2012).
Despite the
challenges that have been discussed in length above, affirmative action has to
be taken in addition to existing efforts towards sustainable tourism
development in developing countries. What is needed now is a new era of
economic growth that is rather forceful and at the same time socially and
environmentally sustainable (UNCSD, 2007). Implicit in the above is that stern
measures should be taken in pursuit of a common sustainable future bearing in
mind the ecological repercussions of proposed interventions on tourism in
developing countries. It is regrettable that these developing countries are
mostly former colonies and do not have enough capacity to effectively implement
successful sustainable tourism development initiatives within their borders
because some of the problems emanate elsewhere and find their way into their
tourism industry through porous policies and legislation. However, as
suggested, pragmatic social, economic and ecologically sustainable tourism
development initiatives are the path to success.
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