Should Social Studies be studied separately and other related fields and not as an integrated curriculum?

Introduction

It is postulated by Pistill (2012) that Social Studies should be studied separately in form of Geography, Economics, History, Political Science and other related fields and not as an integrated curriculum. The status quo and traditional approach to teaching and learning of social studies is through an integrated approach, which is questioned by the afore stated assertion. The assertion may just be propagated by radical thinkers, exams, jobs becoming specialized, revolutionists and evolutionists in education circles who may otherwise be positively or negatively advised by research, personal experiences, experimentation and the natural need for change (Gleeson & Whitty, 1976; Lawton & Dufour, 1973). However, it is the stern position of this essay that studying social studies in its current integrated approach serves the purpose than it would be when studied separately.

Considering that there is an ongoing assault on social studies (Singer, 2014) this essay will initially argue against this assertion by; shedding some light on what social studies is, what it purports to do, integration or interdisciplinary approach, international and African position and timeline on integration and lastly advance the associative arguments undergirding the position of this essay that social studies should not be independent of the disciplines it has traditionally partnered with in pursuit of its goals.

Social studies and its inherent goal

According to Salia-Bao (1990) the meaning of social studies differs from one country to another depending on how they view it and what they hope to achieve by teaching it. Albeit the differences suggested above, it is generally construed as an integrated, interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary course of the study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence and help young people develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions as citizens of culturally diverse, democratic society in an inter dependent world (Adeyemi as cited in Adeyemi, 2010; National Council of the Social Studies, 1992). It does so within the auspices of History, Geography, Economics, Civics and Anthropology as well as the arts (Department of Curriculum Development & Evaluation, 2010; Department of Curriculum Development & Evaluation, 1990; Salia-Bao, 1990). Its origins are traced to the United States of America where the term was first used (Okoth & Ndaloh, 2008), the chief goal of which is citizenship education (Boadu, 2013; Crick, 1998; Kerr, 1999) and as such every possible subject is used to help towards this goal in an integrated and interdisciplinary approach (Kotchhar, 1984).

Integration or interdisciplinary approach

In differentiating between the two, literature is inconsistent with concepts like integrated, interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary often confusing, resulting in educators misconstruing them as interchangeable (Lintner, 2013). On the one hand, through the interdisciplinary approach some people view social studies as a subject that borrows ideas and concepts from other disciplines to clarify issues because one discipline may not be sufficient to explain a phenomena (Adeyemi as cited in Adeyemi, 2010). With integration or interdisciplinary approach, the curriculum is organized around common learning disciplines across the curriculum. It is imperative to make sure that connections and organization are congruent to real life situations, and are skill and knowledge based (Drake & Burns, 2004). In addition Forgarty and Stoehr (1991) allude that the patterns and designs of integration should use the basic elements of each discipline matching subjects for overlaps in topics and concepts. Thus (Hargreaves & More; Parker as cited in Holloway & Chiodo, 2009) emphasise that the curriculum then becomes more meaningful in the lives of the students and integration advances the relevance of classroom learning. Be that as it may, the common denominator here is that facts, generalization, concepts and disciplines are interwoven in the social studies.

International position and timeline on social studies integration

It is globally construed that social studies curriculum is composed of discrete subject areas, with a primary focus on history and to a lesser degree, Geography and Civics completing the triumvirate. The 1893 Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies advocated for an interdisciplinary approach in the social sciences. By 1916, the National Education Association (NEA) on the social studies propelled an interdisciplinary course of instruction based on the social studies. When the NEA 1916 established social studies as the name of the content area, it presented the scope and sequence that is still in use to date. The 1918 Cardinal Principles on Secondary Education would have the main aim of social studies as cultivation of good citizens. The afore developments were thus the continued mission and vision of the National Council of the Social Studies (NCSS) upon its formation in 1921 (Okoth & Ndaloh, 2008; Womack, 1966; www.stateuniversity.com). The above shows that social studies timeline internationally has evolved and seen much debates in its pursuit for good citizenship.

African position and timeline on social studies integration

The African Social Studies Program (ASSP) was unitedly formed by African countries in 1967, about four decades after the global social studies watchdog, the National Council of the Social Studies (NCSS) was established. In the long run it changed to the acronym ASSEP because it had added the environmental education component (Adeyemi, 2010). According to Munyandi-Mutebi (as cited in African Social Studies Program, 1984) the fledging organization wanted to promote curriculum development, research and development of new materials. By the late 1960s, new approaches to the colonially inherited History and Geography courses became known in Africa as Social Studies (Merryfeild, 1988). The Mombasa Conference of August 1968 which was preceded by the formation of the ASSP in 1967 the previous year consisting of African educators, British and American representatives concluded that a new approach based on integration of the traditional subjects (History, Geography & Civics) and some elements from Economics, Sociology and Anthropology was needed (Adeyemi as cited in Jotia & Matlale, 2011). According to Barth (1994) the NCSS upped the African social studies momentum by providing support in terms of expertise. He describes the turning point as the hosting of Third International Social Studies Conference on African soil. It has to realised here, that African social studies timeline is short when put on scale with the international one simply because it is an imported course of study.

Associative arguments undergirding social studies integration

Authors Kottler and Gallavan (2008) see social studies “…beginning as a river and the contributing disciplines as the streams that flow into the river. The river grows deeper and stronger as more streams (the contributing arts and humanities) make the integrated curriculum. Social studies therefore becomes the ocean…” (p.27). This part of the discussion departs by restating the essay position that social studies should be left as it is in terms of being taught as an independent discipline. It does so by reading between the lines of the thematic strands that have stood the times in pursuit of good citizenship education. Herczog (2010) list the following guiding strands for social studies curriculum;

·         people, places and environment

·         time, continuity and change

·         individual development and identity

·         individuals, groups and institutions

·         power, authority and governance

·         production, distribution and consumption

·         science, technology and society

·         global connection

·         civic ideals and practices

It is common within social studies that the above are adopted and incorporated into the curriculum by countries around the world. They should as a matter of procedure be taught in a spiral form (from the known to the unknown) and or increasing the scope and depth as standards go up yearly (Department of Curriculum Development & Evaluation, 2005; Department of Curriculum Development & Evaluation, 1990; Kochhar, 1984). The issue of scope and depth essentially provides a sense of direction to the adopted integrated teaching and learning of social studies. It in this view, that, this essay struggles to envisage the future teaching of social studies independent of these strands which are embedded within the various disciplines that make up social studies. Whitson (2003) sarcastically refers to social studies in this manner as an amalgam of subjects which will die a natural death in the future since cynical voices are beginning to strike the higher chords for people to wake up whilst Evans (2004) cynically sees it as an omnibus course of study. In spite of the sarcasm, it has to be reiterated that making social studies independent of these disciplines is akin to flushing it down the black hole. This analogy is used here to imply that social studies will be left with nothing but very little to teach with regards to the subject matter.

Undeniably, counter statements may be made contrary to the above, for example, it could be argued concepts like citizenship education and nation building can provide the perfect content for social studies when explored in depth in the event that it is taught separately. Contrariwise, it becomes almost impossible to teach for citizenship without paying visit to the knowledge of politics, economics and governance as sources of social studies content. Statements undergirding the independent teaching of the subject are deficient of and indeed disregarding the knowledge bases of the teacher like pedagogical content knowledge which are the weapons of the teaching cadre (Cogil, 2008; Shulman, 1986; Turner-Bisset, 1999)

One particular counter statement that should otherwise have preceded the above is the assertion that social studies as a combination of different disciplines is narrow and shallow. Oats (2014) boldly posit that “the content of different disciplines in social studies do not deeply expose learners to meaningful contexts and are relatively fragmented facts and generalizations” (p.42). The essay would like to, on the rebound, hasten that this should not be the dismissing factor of social studies integrated approach but rather as suggested by (Kerr & Cleaver cited in Oats, 2014) opposite views should be seen as part of the continuum not a mutually exclusive position in its entirety. Thus, in short, fragmentation coexists with some integration (Strauss, 1997) implying that the suggested fragments of the social studies are better off integrated than when social studies is left to stand in isolation. As observed by Schug and Cross (as cited in Lintner, 2013) the ten themes of social studies purposefully integrate science, technology, global connections, civic ideals and practices. In fostering cross disciplinary integration, the NCSS sent the message that its standards play down separate social studies disciplines and play up curriculum integration thus further dismissing the teaching of social studies as an independent subject.

Ferlazzo (2012) presents an interesting anecdote saying that educators should push their teaching beyond the traditional peripheries of our discipline to show that social studies is rightly positioned as an integrated subject. He state that there are pressing issues facing mankind like climate change which teachers somewhat feel belongs to scientists and are extra-terrestrial to social studies. However, the social impact, mitigation proposals and ultimately how we can create a habitable world of sanity are social studies issues, albeit being marginalized by those who dismiss the integrated approach of our beloved subject. This further reinforces the notion put forward by this essay that social studies is better placed in its integrated nature. To drive the argument home Kirby-Gonzalez (as cited in Ferlazzo, 2012) as a matter of diplomacy states “we need a little help from our friends” implying the disciplines undergirding social studies. Thus a foundation for the future citizens and social studies requires concepts from other disciplines lest we render the foundation weak if it is to stands alone.

It is the view of this essay that social studies should be left to sit comfortably on the chair with its integration hat on. To be precise, stripping social studies off disciplines like Politics will be injustice to the young citizenry who need political knowledge from a young age. According to Michaels, Michaels and Michaels (as cited in Ajiboye, 2009) who use Botswana as an example,  propose that children should typically be introduced to the constitution as part of the social studies curriculum at an early age. This is an important movement because the constitution is the citizens’ handbook and the governments book of agreement. The same should be extended to other countries such that good citizens are seen as knowledgeable about government processes (Dube & Moffat, 2009). Moreover, if Politics were to be adrift of social studies, those unfortunate learners who would for whatever reason fail to cross the bridge to the next level of education besides elementary or primary levels where Politics may be an independent subject will be left in the darkness of political illetracy. The fact that they will eventually attain full citizenship status as grown-ups means they need political knowledge otherwise we risk having a politically illiterate group of young failures especially those in the peripheries occupied by the minority.  The sovereignty of countries and dominance of democracy as a form of governance globally needs social studies and political knowledge (Barth, 1994).

According to the Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation (2010) it is vital to include national issues like road safety, citizen economic empowerment, civic and voter education, globalization, rights and responsibilities into the syllabus. Looking at the above examples, their inclusion in social studies shows the integrated nature of the subject. They are important elements synonymous with citizenship education which is the chief goal of social studies (Ajiboye, 2009) and are borrowed from other disciplines to make up social studies. Welton (2005) caution that “not every child will become an engineer, doctor, or a scientist, but everyone will become a citizen, it is an office that everyone of us occupies” (p.5). It is the view of this essay that scrapping off these disciplines from social studies defeats its very purpose of citizenship attainment. Unless or otherwise those proposing for independence of the subject from other disciplines have a different overarching goal of the subject besides the current one. In fact, it is fundamental to see social studies as a field of study whose existence axis on its interdisciplinary and integrated nature (Banks & Martorella as cited in Owen, 1997).

In describing the role of social studies in the changing society, Merryfeild (1988) assert that the ASSP Conference articulated three areas where the subject could make a contribution; national integration, economic development and the promotion of self-confidence and initiative based on understanding of ones’ own worth and of the essential dignity of man. What then becomes relevant to this discussion in support of an integrated social studies is “national integration and economic development”. Arguing that the afore conference was African in origin and therefore not relative to the world is neither here nor there, the point is, what happens in one part of the world has the inherent potential to influence the global village whether positive or negative. National integration through an integrated social studies curriculum is not such a bad idea that can be dismissed. Moreover, for countries to prosper, especially in Africa, there is a greater need for economic development as suggested at the conference implying that knowledge of Economics is crucial to citizenship education as the overriding purpose of social studies.

There is a reflex shortage of social studies subject specialists in Botswana (Jotia & Matlale, 2011) and worldwide too. This is also relative to other disciplines like Geography and History (Starkey, 2000). Thus, the argument that social studies should be taught as a separate subject does not hold water for this essay because the initiative will be faced with manpower shortage even before implementing agents hit the ground running if the initiative is to be adopted. Within this shortcoming, there is also the unfortunate scenario wherein the subject is taught by generalist teachers and not specialists. Scholarly reflections have shown that Historians and Geographers are not trained to handle vast subjects like social studies prompting the propagation of calls for the subject to be taught separately out of desperation and desire to be seen at the fore in education circles (Lawton & Dufour, 1973). Shifting to teaching the subject in isolation hiding behind the rhetoric that educators possess insufficient knowledge of the contributing disciplines like Economics and dismissing it as lacking depth and cohesion (Oats, 2014) will not solve the puzzle. There is already a concern that the products of teacher institutions are lacking in some respects like citizenship, multicultural and global education (Mhlauli, 2011) hence calls for the review of teacher education programs (Hillburn & Maguth, 2014). It is against this backdrop that, this essay feels the problem here is not with teaching social studies separately but an organizational matter of policy and program review (Gleeson & Whitty, 1976) to restore the faith of people in the subject which is however at an all-time low (Tlou, O’Mara & Mautle, 1989).

According to DCDE (1990) “social studies was created to integrate knowledge not fragment it. We do not face life problems as sociologists or historians. Rather, we face them as citizens who have to take into consideration all of the knowledge that we have so that we might live effective lives” (p.3). The point of contention here is that, we do not live fragmented lives as human beings, but live an integrated kind of life. It is in this sense that social studies integrated and interdisciplinary approach prepares citizens for an integrated life than fragmented one which is found within the arguments of those proposing for the teaching of the social studies as a separated subject. Besides, we live in an interconnected global world than fragmented cohorts of nations and people.

It has emerged from discussion herein that, arguably, no other discipline has the innate pressure to integrate than social studies. On the other hand, it has been marginalized and suffers credibility crisis thus being pushed further to the proverbial back burner of educational importance. Yet, regardless of perspective or position, remains ripe for integration (Lintner, 2013). The subject has been credited with its integrated approach of borrowing from other disciplines that, each of them share a common identification and use of research guidelines, principles and generalizations and hypotheses (Womack, 1966). In lieu of the above, Lintner (2013) reiterate that “ social studies is never singular, it seeks the rich plurality of the perspectives, the purposeful interplay between content areas and the guiding belief that more is better” (p.12). Further, plaudits are found in the outstanding assets of integration that students develop the ability to use great and unavoidable interrelationships in the socials sciences into creating a single body of content needed to accomplish the purposes of social studies (Costley, 2015; Whitson, 2003; Womack, 1966). Besides, guest speakers can always be invited in the event that educators have problems (Ferlazzo, 2012).

Conclusion

It is claimed that social studies may not exist in the future in light of efforts to establish separate subjects (Whitson, 2003) and cynic analogies that integration is akin to squeezing a lemon wherein the juice is removed and only the useless rind and fibres remain (Lawton & Dufour, 1973). It is the opinion of this essay that the above is immaterial and social studies as integrated subject should never be thought of under auspices and pretext of being studied as a separate subject. This essay has consistently and tersely argued against the isolation of social studies from the social sciences citing among others the importance of integrating knowledge of other disciplines to citizenship education which is the sole purpose of social studies and the guiding thematic strands being intertwined. Good social studies pulls not just from its core, but from all other complimentary disciplines and in doing so, creates an interrelated and interdependent web of presentation and practice (Lintner, 2013). Hence the position adopted by this essay that social studies should not be studied separately in the form of Geography, Economics, History, Political Science and other related fields.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

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Is Educational Reform Inherently Political? A Botswana Perspective

 Botswana's leadership has recently made bold pronouncements regarding curriculum reform from overhauling syllabi and introducing decolonized content, to emphasizing Artificial Intelligence (AI) integration in schools and abolishing corporal punishment. Yet, what has stirred the most debate is not merely the intent behind these reforms, but the platforms where they are being announced: mainly Kgotla meetings and institutional visits by political leaders.

As an education observer and engaged citizen, I wish to offer a few notable points for consideration. Yes, Botswana needs education reform but how reforms are communicated matters just as much as what they entail.

Educational reform is a complex and delicate process. It demands robust data, broad consultation, technical expertise and most importantly, stakeholder buy-in. Teachers, school leaders, parents, and learners themselves are critical agents in shaping what happens in classrooms.

However, when major reforms are announced informally at events like Kgotla meetings, it can signal a bypassing of key stakeholders. Many teachers first hear of these changes via social media, fostering confusion and a sense of exclusion.

Botswana’s education sector has witnessed landmark policies such as Education for Kagisano (1977) and the Revised National Policy on Education (RNPE, 1994). Both were visionary, yet their impact was blunted by implementation gaps, inconsistent political commitment and disruptions in policy continuity.

Without careful planning and genuine stakeholder engagement, even the most promising reforms risk failing. When reforms are announced without formal documentation or consultation, we may face real challenges like:

- Teacher resistance and confusion due to lack of clarity and training.
- Public mistrust, especially when reforms appear politically motivated.
- Inconsistency, as changes may be reversed or reshaped following election cycles.

Fortunately, Botswana has the institutional strength to manage reforms responsibly. Institutions such as the Ministry of Child Welfare and Basic Education, the Botswana Examinations Council (BEC), the University of Botswana, and teacher unions are well-positioned to design, pilot, and implement education reforms that align with international trends like AI integration, while maintaining Botswana’s cultural values.

These institutions can provide:
- Research-based insights
- Pilot testing of new initiatives
- Professional development programs for teachers
- Monitoring and evaluation frameworks to assess the effectiveness of reforms.

To strengthen education reform efforts in Botswana, we must:
1. Shift reform announcements into professional and public education forums rather than community gatherings.
2. Publish formal policy briefs explaining proposed changes in clear, detailed terms.
3. Consult broadly and meaningfully, especially with teachers, learners, and education experts.
4. Train and empower implementing teachers, recognizing that even the best curriculum will fail without prepared implementers.

There is no denying that education reform is inherently political, as education shapes the future of any nation. However, when educational reform expediency seems to override professional expertise and broad stakeholder engagement, the result is often confusion, mistrust, and policy failure.

If Botswana is truly committed to preparing its young people for a dynamic, tech-driven future, we must approach education reform as a shared national project anchored in consultation, transparency and a collective vision for success.

Only then can Botswana’s education system thrive in the 21st century and beyond.

About the Author:

Oabona Moses Sello is a primary school teacher in Botswana with twenty years of classroom experience. He holds a Masters of Education (M.Ed.) degree in Social Studies and Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) Social Studies from the University of Botswana in 2018 and 2014 respectively. His initial teacher training was at Lobatse College of Education doing Diploma in Primary Education (D.P.E) with majors in Social Studies & Religious Education attained in 2004. He has previously taught at Tubu Primary School during 2005-2011 and Shashe Primary School from 2012-2014, Phuthadikobo Primary School from 2015-2017, Our Lady of Carmel Mission School from 2018-2022, Letsebe Primary School from 2022-2024 and Seingwaeng Primary School from 2024 to date. He has great interest in research, politics, policy and citizenship issues.

Botswana’s Classrooms and the Escalation of Artificial Intelligence (AI): Should We or Should We Not?

The mere mention of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Botswana’s classrooms often evokes connotations of American and European teaching pedagogies, systems largely removed from the Tswana or broader African educational context. Yet, AI is rapidly becoming an integral part of global education systems and Botswana is cautiously beginning to explore its potential. Educators are responding with a complex blend of curiosity, apprehension and growing acceptance.

 With the increasing integration of digital tools such as e-libraries, video tutorials, and online syllabi, AI holds significant potential to support both teachers and learners particularly in primary and secondary schools, where foundational learning occurs.

 Understanding AI in the classroom

Artificial Intelligence refers to machines or software capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence such as analyzing data, solving problems or making decisions. In educational settings, this might be reflected through adaptive learning apps that tailor content to a learner’s pace, or data-driven platforms that help teachers identify learning gaps and track student progress.

 With national initiatives like SmartBots, THUTONET, and the Orange Botswana Digital Schools Program, the integration of AI feels like a natural progression. These programs are paving the way for more tailored, responsive and efficient learning environments.

 The antidote to overcrowded classrooms

One of the most promising advantages of AI is personalized learning. The pupil-teacher ratio (PTR) in many urban secondary and primary schools remains high, making it difficult for educators to give individual attention to students. On the contrary, rural primary schools face the opposite challenge with low enrollment and limited resources.

 AI can help bridge this divide. For instance, an AI-powered mathematics lesson can adjust in real time to support struggling students while simultaneously offering enrichment to more advanced learners. This kind of differentiated instruction, typically unfeasible in a traditional Botswana classroom, becomes possible with AI.

 A collaborative future

A recurring concern is that AI might replace teachers in Botswana classrooms. However, this fear needs to be unpacked from both sides. In Botswana, education is grounded in Botho (humanity), mentorship and human collaboration. Values that no machine can replicate.

 AI is not a substitute for educators, but rather a partner. It can handle routine tasks such as grading, tracking performance, or content delivery, thereby allowing teachers to focus on inspiring and guiding learners. This teacher-technology partnership should be embraced rather than feared. Besides, modern classroom teaching is marred with a plethora of challenges such as lack of support materials and teacher burn out.

 A digital future

As Botswana accelerates toward its Vision 2036 aspirations, digital literacy becomes a necessity rather than a luxury. AI can be a powerful tool in nurturing essential skills such as critical thinking, creativity and coding, starting from early learning stages. Programs like Orange Digital Schools can provide a boost, particularly to primary and junior secondary students, helping to close the gap with the more tech-advanced senior secondary cohort.

 Challenges & cautions

Despite its promise, AI integration comes with significant challenges. Many schools, particularly in rural areas, lack the infrastructure such as stable internet and modern devices needed to support AI. There is a real risk of deepening the already existing urban-rural digital divide and leaving primary school learners behind.

 Moreover, successful AI integration hinges on teacher readiness. Both in-service and pre-service teacher training must be intensified to ensure educators are equipped to use AI meaningfully in their pedagogies. Teachers must evolve from being passive users of technology to active designers of AI-enhanced learning environments.

 Further, concerns around data privacy, screen time and over-dependence on AI must be addressed. Without clear national policies, we risk sacrificing creativity for automation and developing a generation of learners overly reliant on machines.

 Looking ahead

AI has the potential to revolutionize Botswana’s education system, making it more inclusive, efficient and future-ready. However, this progress must be navigated carefully as unchartered waters to Botswana’s classroom. We must ensure that our national values, educational goals and human connections remain at the heart of any technological advancement.

 The question is no longer whether AI should be in our classrooms, but how we introduce it responsibly, inclusively and in harmony with the soul of Botswana’s education policy and system.

About the Author:

Oabona Moses Sello is a primary school teacher in Botswana with twenty years of classroom experience. He holds a Masters of Education (M.Ed.) degree in Social Studies and Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) Social Studies from the University of Botswana in 2018 and 2014 respectively. His initial teacher training was at Lobatse College of Education doing Diploma in Primary Education (D.P.E) with majors in Social Studies & Religious Education attained in 2004. He has previously taught at Tubu Primary School during 2005-2011 and Shashe Primary School from 2012-2014, Phuthadikobo Primary School from 2015-2017, Our Lady of Carmel Mission School from 2018-2022, Letsebe Primary School from 2022-2024 and Seingwaeng Primary School from 2024 to date. He has great interest in research, politics, policy and citizenship issues.

obmsello@gmail.com/73352030                                

Oabona Moses Sello

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Game Ranching in Botswana: Comparing the Kalahari and Northern Systems

Introduction Over the past years, there has been paradoxically, a significant decline and death in the many wildlife ungulates like the wildebeest in the Kalahari system and comparatively, the buffalo in the Northern system of Botswana (Cullen, 2014; Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). This uncongenial scenario has consequently led to the depletion of wildlife to a threshold that demands a drastic response from policy and human beings (Chobe Wildlife Trust as cited in Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). Such measures included for example water provision and restricted game hunting (Department of Wildlife & National Parks, 2013). It is on this note that these essays purports to critically and relatively discuss the development of game ranching in the Northern and Kalahari systems of Botswana. The stand is thus adopted based on the assumption that game ranching has the inherent ability to turn around the situation. The benefits and repercussions that can ensue there from will be discussed inter alia the two systems as well as drawing from other countries who have somewhat excelled in the industry like South Africa and Namibia (Kgamanyane, 2016). Game ranching in Botswana context An abridgment description of game ranching involves the extensive management of wildlife on a fenced land (Republic of Botswana, 2002) and or unfenced land (Conybeare & Rozemeijer, 1991). In extension, authors Mossmann and Mossmann (1976) posits that the management of wildlife and land alluded to above entails amongst others, the application of scientific knowledge for the mutual benefit of all life. Its development in Botswana has been rather slow due to the reliance on cattle farming. However, the subsequent game ranching policy and government support saw its steady grow. In fact there were 111 ranches in 2012 with the potential for upsurge (Boast, 2014). The Kalahari and Northern systems For purposes of discussion unfolding herein, the Kalahari system is referred to as the areas below the Makgadikgadi pans down to include the Ghanzi and Kgalagadi districts. These places generally typify land degradation (Reed, Stringer, Dougill, Perkins, Atlhopheng, Mulale & Farvetto, 2015) and fortunately game ranches have the capacity to rehabilitate such (Republic of Tanzania, 2000). In their view, Ghanzi District Council (2003) posits that the area is predominantly covered in deep sands and grass with a profound reliance on underground water. GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI &NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA On the one hand, the Northern system will be discussed under the parameters stretching from the Okavango, Makgadikgadi and Chobe enclaves. The area begins in the north-west where the delta drains inland from Angola and the central north-east with large flat plains logged with saline waters (Burgess, 2006) as well as the Chobe which benefits from Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. According to Perkins and Ringrose (1996) “the Northern systems which have permanently available surface water are characterized by higher large herbivore biomass (LHB). The area is also home to water dependent species e.g. buffalo (Murray as cited in Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). Figure 1: Part of the Kalahari system Figure 2: Part of the Northern system Images retrieved from www.googlearth.com The unique colours of both aerial images representing the Kalahari (Figure 1) and Northern (Figure 2) offer contrasting descriptions of the two systems. The brown colour reminiscent of the Kalahari implies the arid and barren nature of the system cynically called the “thirst land” (Parsons, 2016) as compared to the greenish Northern system typical of water abundance of the area especially during wet periods. Some game ranching species in the Kalahari and Northern systems Table 1 Gemsbok Red hartebeest Eland Blue wildebeest Springbok Warthog Impala Waterbuck Kudu Zebra Ostrich Tessebe Adopted from BWPA (2005) GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI & NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA Having brought the curtain down herein with the introduction, brief contextual situation of local game ranching, synopsis of both systems as the focal point and listing some game species, this essay will at this juncture essentially delineate the case of game ranching development in Botswana. In doing so, local, regional and international examples concomitant to the success and or failure of the enterprise will be used for clarity. A significant effort will be made to overly streamline the discussion as much as possible to Botswana with particular reference to the Kalahari and Northern systems. Significance and nemesis of game ranching development to Botswana For starters, game ranching enterprise is economically viable (Snyder, 1996). This assertion is also substantiated by studies carried out regionally by researchers Lindsey, Barnes, Nyirenda, Tambling and Taylor (2013) and Bezuidenhout (2012) among others. The former group suggesting 15.7 millions of USD in Zambia and the latter 960 million ZAR in South Africa just from auction sales. The fact that the enterprise is viewed with the potential to bring financial gains testifies the need to pursue and harness it for our benefit. However, in offering plaudits upon game ranching viability, comparison of Botswana game ranching potential with regional neighbours should be done with caution. This is because such countries have a proven track record and evolved over time reducing capital outlay needed to run them whilst ours is still in its infancy (Conybeare & Rosemeijer as cited in Molefe, 2002). Thus, Botswana has at her disposal the opportune prospect of maneuvering game ranching in both the Kalahari and Northern systems. It is also profoundly imperative to highlight that chances of the enterprise in the Kalahari can be expensive due to issues of restocking (Tacheba, Mahailwe & Dailey, 1991) necessitated by the decline in animal species like red hartebeest (Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). In their view, Lindsey et al., (2013) posits that game meat sourced from game ranching provides an alternative to beef and poultry meat. Even though their observation was made in the Zambian industry, this essay finds it’s relevant to discuss the issue relative to Botswana. This is in light with the continued and persistent outbreak of the Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) in the Northern system (BWPA, 2005), not forgetting the disastrous contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) disease (Burgess, 2006). These deadly cattle diseases degenerate the viability of livestock production in the Northern system in light of the stringent Botswana Meat Commission (BMC) and European Union (EU) slaughtering policies, hence the recommendation GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI &NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA of game ranching as an alternative step. On the contrary though, the Kalahari system has not experienced any major animal disease outbreaks as compared to the Northern system. However, this is not to imply that the Kalahari is somewhat devoid of animal diseases. Above all, studies have revealed that wildlife is better adapted to the African environment than livestock (Wildlife Campus, 2013; Molefe, 2002). Intensified game ranching provides for diversification of the economic activities in Botswana as part of the Economic Diversification Drive (EDD) strategy through developing new enterprises (Daily News, 2013; Republic of Botswana, 2002). Game ranching is one such development. The status quo is such that, though the Northern system is economically reliant of tourism of which game ranching is part of, much of eco-tourism activities do not occur in private game ranches. Thus, game ranching brings in a different economic perspective to the system like job creation for communities to flanking ranches. Besides privately owned ranches, communities can be empowered through Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRMs) and Community Based Organizations (CBOs) and Community Trusts (Arntzen, 2003). The same benefits can potentially be extended to game ranching in the Kalahari system. The development of game ranching in Botswana continues to meet with a plethora of obstacles wherein one problem can in turn be an advantage when comparing the Northern and Kalahari systems. The point is, what inhibits game ranching in the Northern system may not necessarily impede the industry in the Kalahari. For example, in their consultative work, ecologists Perkins and Ringrose (1996) found out that tourism in the northern Botswana has significantly broadened due to close proximity with the Zambezi system where facilities are in abundance. Contrariwise, White as cited in Perkins and Ringrose (1996) alludes that tourism is minimal due to the districts inaccessibility to services. It is profoundly imperative to mention that the study mentioned supra did not by any means target game ranching, nevertheless this essay finds it possible to technically relate their findings to the viability of the development of game ranching in both the Kalahari and Northern systems because the industry falls within the parameters of tourism. The Kalahari system finds itself trailing behind the Northern system with regards to the financial and economic value of game ranching partly due to the absence of high value species in the industry like elephant and buffalo which are in abundance in the latter system (Arntzen, 2003). This is further being compounded by tourist preferences that tend to tilt towards the north GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI & NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA where the big five species are visible (Cousins, Sadler & Evans, 2008). It may be argued on the contrary that, species absent from the Kalahari can be translocated to the south, but alas, there are ethical issues as per CITES and policy regulations as well as exuberant expenses to incur as suggested by the former state president Sir Ketumile Masire (Daily News, 2016). Using Sir Ketumile Masire Sekoma ranch as a case study, the Kalahari is beaten to the finish line by the Northern system in water availability. The Daily News (2016) emphatically cautions that without sufficient water, captured species as in game ranching are at a death risk. In his study, which otherwise focused on goats locally, Derry (2004) vigilantly cautions about the strenuous distances animals have to travel to water sources as an impediment to their grazing patterns. This concern is however limited in danger in the Northern systems because it generally has enough water for species. Counter statements may hasten to mention the option of drilled boreholes in the Kalahari which is good, but that is mitigated by the saline underground water unpalatable to animals (Burgess, 2006). Game ranching development in Botswana is to some extent constrained by policies that have over the years over emphasized wildlife conservation and empowerment of people than more economically oriented perspectives towards fauna and flora (Arntzen, 2003). In the view of this essay, game ranching provides a conceptual framework for such paradigm shift. As it stands, the industry will cover what the policies purports to and offer something economically. Such areas for conservation are abundant in the Northern than in the Kalahari system, safe for the CKGR and Gemsbok National Park. As an antidote to correct the above anomaly about game ranching in Botswana’s systems as elsewhere is the “political will” needed towards the realization of the full potential of the industry (Musengezi, 2010). Much political attention seems to be pushed towards the Northern system with greater efforts made towards the sustainable use of the Northern system especially the Okavango delta which is seen as the jewel of world tourism (Burgess, 2006) overlooking the dry Kalahari system. A lot of game proof fences around Botswana were politically erected whilst others were rightfully erected to control diseases (BWPA, 2005) whilst also wrongfully restricting the natural movements of species (Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). The huge presence of elephants in the Northern system acts as an impediment to fencing ranches since the wildlife has to be enclosed in most cases (Tacheba, Mahabile & Dailey, 1991). There is already a concern that the elephants are destroying the buffalo fence intended to curb the GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI &NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA spread of FMD in the region. A subsequent of concern for the game rancher will therefore be increased fencing expenses caused by elephants’ destruction to and from drinking areas. That is if the fences cut across their natural movements. Comparatively, this is not a concern for an ordinary game ranching enterprise in the Kalahari system. Conclusion “In the emergent Africa you either use wildlife or lose it” (Myers in Krueter & Workman, 1997; p.171). Although this statement may sound cynical and sarcastic, it perfectly fits the state of game ranching even locally. The point is Africa and Botswana in particular have a rich varied species of wildlife that have to be used through economic, sustainable and conservative enterprises akin to game ranching than losing it through consumptive methods like poaching. Governments, Botswana inclusive, should not be fearful of game ranching especially that it is subject to stricter CITES regulations (Republic of Tanzania, 2000). Hence management and control will not necessarily be a grave issue. The Kalahari and Northern systems present diverse chances for the industry in Botswana more so that the two systems are rather different ecologically offering ranchers and tourists’ options in terms of experiencing the fauna and flora of Botswana. What is important especially in complex savanna systems like the Kalahari and Northern Botswana is to make sure policy actions are guided by expert empirical research (Kgosikoma, Mojeremane & Harvie, 2013). As such, the development of game ranching as a sustainable land use option and economic incentive for biodiversity conservation in the Kalahari and Northern systems is viable for Botswana (Chomba, Obias, & Nyirenda, 2014). GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI & NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA References Arntzen, J. W. (2003). An economic view on wildlife management areas (WMAs) in Botswana. The Wildlife Conservation Union. Bezuidenhout, R. (2012). Game auction trends in 2012. Retrieved from http://www.farmersweekly.co.za/article.aspx?id=34535&h=Game-auction-trends-in-2012 Boast, L. (2014). Exploring the causes of and mitigation options for human-predator conflict on game ranches in Botswana: How is coexistence possible? Doctoral Dissertation: University of Cape Town. Burgess, J. (2006). Country pasture/forage resource profiles. Food Agricultural Organization (FAO). Chomba, C., Obias, C., & Nyirenda, T. (2014). Game Ranching: A Sustainable Land Use Option and Economic Incentive for Biodiversity Conservation in Zambia. Open Journal of Ecology, 4, 571-581.doi.org/10.4236/oje.2014.49047 Conybeare, A., & Rozemeijer, N. G. (1991). Game ranching area assessment work plan. United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Cousins, J. A., Sadler, J. P., & Evans, J. (2008). Exploring the role of private wildlife ranches as a conservation tool: Stakeholder perspectives. Ecology & Society, 13(2), 43. Retrieved from www.ecologysociety.org Cullen, T. (2014). World parks congress 2014: Parks, people & planet. Koedoe, 57(1), 1338 1341. doi: 10.4102/koedoe.v5i1.1338 Daily News. (November, 2013). State of the nation address: SONA 2013. Botswana Press Agency (BOPA).Gaborone; Botswana. Daily News. (January, 2016). Masire loses 89 Zebras. Botswana Press Agency (BOPA).Gaborone; Botswana. Derry, J. F. (2004). Phiospheres in semi-arid rangelands: Consequences of spatially constrained plant-herbivore interactions. Doctoral Dissertation: University of Edinburg. Ghanzi District Council. (2003). Ghanzi District Development Plan 6: 2003-2009. Ministry of Local Government. Gaborone; Botswana. Kgamanyane, J. (2016, 19 February). Botswana urged to embrace game ranching. Weekend Post. Retrieved from http://www.weekendpost.co.bw GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI &NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA Kgosikoma, O. E., Mojeremane, W., & Harvie, B. A. (2013). Government management systems & their effects on savanna ecosystems: A review. Journal of Ecology & Natural Environment, 5(6), 88-94.doi: 10.5897 Krueter, U. P., & Workman, J. P. (1997). Comparative profitability of cattle & wildlife ranches in semi-arid Zimbabwe. Journal of Arid Environments, 35, 171-187. doi: 10.1006/jare Lindsey, P. A., Barnes, J., Nyirenda, Y., Tambling, C., & Taylor,W. (2013). The Zambian game ranching industry: Scale, associated benefits & limitations affecting its development. Wildlife Producers Association of Zambia (WAPZA). Molefe, J. I. (2002). Multi-criteria analysis of game and cattle ranching in the Kgalagardi District; Botswana. The case of Matsheng. Master’s Thesis: University of Botswana. Mossmann, S. L., & Mossmann, A. S. (1976). Wildlife utilization and game ranching. Report on a study of recent progress in this field in Southern Africa. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Morges; Switzerland. Musengezi, J. (2010). Wildlife utilization on private land: Understanding the economics of game ranching in South Africa. Doctoral Dissertation: University Of Florida Pekins, J. S., & Ringrose, S. M. (1996). A study of livestock/wildlife/tourism degradation linkages. Development cooperation objectives & beef protocol. European Commission. Final Report. Annex 1. Gaborone; Botswana. Pekins, J. S., & Ringrose, S. M. (1996). A study of livestock/wildlife/tourism degradation linkages. Development cooperation objectives & beef protocol. European Commission. Final Report. Annex 2. Gaborone; Botswana. Reed, M. S., Stringer, L. C., Dougill, A. J., Perkins, J. S., Atlhopheng, J. R., Mulale, K., & Farvetto, N. ( 2015). Reorienting land degradation towards sustainable land management: Linking sustainable livelihoods with ecosystem services in rangeland systems. Journal of Environmental Management, 151, 472-485. Retrieved from www.elsevier.com Republic of Botswana. (2002). Game ranching policy for Botswana. Ministry of Trade, Industry, Wildlife & Tourism. Gaborone; Botswana. Republic of Tanzania. (2000). Policy guidelines for game farming & game ranching in Tanzania. Ministry of Natural Resources & Tourism. Dar Es Lam; Tanzania. GAME RANCHING: KALAHARI & NORTHERN SYSTEMS; BOTSWANA Department of Wildlife & National Parks. (2013). Aerial census of animals in Botswana: 2012 Dry Season. Ministry of Trade, Industry, Wildlife & Tourism. Gaborone; Botswana. Parsons, N. (2016) Bechuanaland; Republic of Botswana. Britannica Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/place/Botswana . Snyder, D. (1996). Commercialization of wild game ranching: Enterprise budgets. Economic Research Institute. Retrived from www.digitalcomms.usu.edu/eri/111 Tacheba, G., Mahabile, W., & Dailey, J. (eds.). (October, 1991). The potential for increasing livestock productivity in Botswana. Proceedings of the livestock production workshop. Ministry of Agriculture. Gaborone; Botswana. Wildlife Campus. (2013). The trend towards game ranching in Southern Africa. ABSA Bank.

Sustainable Tourism Development in developing countries

 

Introduction

                "A global agenda for change” this was what Brundtland’s team was tasked with in pursuit of long-term environmental strategies for achieving sustainable development by the year 2000 and beyond (World Commission on Environment & Development, 1987). Amongst the developments that subsequently came up was the extension of the same to sustainable tourism towards a common future. The discussion that follows henceforth will be premised on the challenges of sustainable tourism development in developing countries.  Morgan (1999) alludes that there exists a nexus of questions about the practicality of achieving sustainable tourism by developing countries. Paradoxically, Rizio and Gios (2014) emphasis that “in practice, the application of the conceptual framework for sustainable tourism development is not straight forward particularly where natural resources are concerned” (p. 2381).

            In discussing sustainable tourism development in developing countries, it is imperative that this essay adopts a position relative to the Millennium Summit of 2000 whose cornerstones were construed as a panacea to sustainable development in developing countries and tourism is seen as one such inventiveness to pursue (Deszczynski, 2011). Hence, the adopted trajectory of briefly looking at developing countries, sustainable development, sustainable tourism and to a larger extent unpacking the challenges militating against sustainable tourism development in developing countries.

Developing countries

            The United Nations, World Bank and literature in general display a lack of universally agreed definition of what constitutes a developing country. Terms like “less developed countries”, “landlocked developing countries” and “small island developing countries” are used interchangeably. The judgement to that effect is pronounced on the grounds of the low level of such countries per capital income (World Bank, 2008). They are mostly countries who have been former colonies experiencing socio-economic challenges such as poverty (Mirskii, 2010).

Sustainable development

            The United Nations Economic Commission of Africa (2009) maintains that the Stockholm Conference of 1972 and the Brundland Report of 1987 opened gates for the analytical approach to the challenges of sustainable development. Sustainable development is thus development that meets the needs of the present without in any way compromising the inherent ability of future generations to meet their own needs (United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, 2007). In essence, the implied development should be a double edged sword to tackle current challenges yet also thinking of the long term picture.

Sustainable tourism development

            In their study, Dong et al (2004) posits that sustainable tourism development is a high stake issue in global fora on long trends in tourism destination development. They also conclude that this ecological undertaking is tilted more towards developing countries than their developed counterparts. The concept became the buzzword after the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) Report of 1987 axing around the interrelatedness of social, economic and ecological sustainability (Mbaiwa, 2005).

            Besides being viewed in light of the present and future, sustainable tourism is according to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (1994) “envisaged as leading to the management of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes…” (p. 30). Thus, this form of tourism has the ability to transform the socio-economic and ecological levels of developing countries sustainably.

Challenges militating against sustainable tourism development in developing countries

            Despite their variability in nature, the challenges to be discussed hereunder basically trickles down to economic, social and environmental aspects (United Nations Environmental Programme, 2012). However, some challenges are policy and politically oriented thus further hampering sustainable tourism development in host destinations like Botswana (Mbaiwa, 2015).

            To begin with, sustainable tourism development in developing countries is faced with a plethora of climate change effects such as unprecedented disease outbreaks (Moswete & Dube, 2011). In extension, Rutty and Scott (2016) highlights that “weather and climate represent a key element of the natural resource base of a tourism destination and this is an important consideration in tourist decision making” (p. 2). As such, sustainable tourism development in developing countries that focus on the natural base alluded to above is poised to suffer consequently. Regionally, one can think of Botswana tourism in the northern system which is profoundly reliant on the Okavango Delta which once experienced some in flooding uncongenially leading to loss of revenue, jobs and declined livelihoods of the locals (Moswete & Dube, 2011).

            Weaver (2012) posits that intervention measures should be supported by government and the private sector in order to yield tangible benefits and to address local sustainability issues against climate change. However, developing countries face a huge challenge of expertise and financial backing to counter climate change (Milazi, 1996; Fazendin, 2009). The situation is exacerbated by misconceptions of what entails climate change and lack of awareness that tourist behaviours like travelling patterns also effect climate change (Dillimono & Dickinson, 2014)

            It is generally held that sustainable tourism development can economically emancipate developing countries from poverty (UNWTO, 1994). However, the situation on the ground is the exact opposite. A study by Mbaiwa (2005) on the socio-economic impacts of enclave tourism in the Okavango Delta; Botswana, revealed the challenge of repatriation of tourism revenue by dominating foreign owned tourist operations as is the case with many developing countries. At the time, 70% of tourism revenue generated locally was repatriated outside Botswana. In this light, developing countries are thus handicapped in their pursuit for sustainable tourism development because the proceeds that accrue there from tourism should also benefit the local people and to a larger extent biodiversity conservation in the whole country (Mbaiwa, 2015). A similar trend was also revealed in Kenya by authors Akama and Kieti (2007) when reviewing the status of tourism and socio-economic development in developing countries using Kenya as a case study.

            It is also highly imperative to note here on the contrary that, the paradox of foreign exchange leakage (United Nations Commission for Sustainable Development, 1999) is through policy avoided in some developing countries which better positions them to benefit from tourism. Botswana’s neighbours in the west; Namibia, rightfully retains more revenue than the former because of an indigenized international airline operations. In this mix-up, Zimbabwe has an almost similar airline approach to Namibia yet she does not retain tourism revenue largely due to the declining Zimbabwean Dollar (Mbaiwa, 2005). On a mass tourist scale which is unlike the pursuit for our common future, Mauritius tourism is monopolized by large international groups like Sun International (Southern African Development Community, 2009). The above examples are testimony to the assertion that the tourism industry is a complex business whereby technical expertise and research are pivotal to achieving sustainable tourism development by developing countries with regards to devising and implementing sustainable plans, policies and projects (Gartner, 2008).

            Buchsbaum (2004) presupposes that sustainable tourism development in developing countries is somewhat hampered by insufficient environmental education knowledge by the majority of stakeholders involved. It is the opinion of this essay that the allegedly lack of environmental education has its roots in the education systems and curriculum models adopted by developing countries. Using Botswana as a case study for further clarity on this stand, the status quo is such that environmental education where the concept of sustainable tourism is housed, its teaching and learning is from an infusion perspective. That is, it does not stand alone as a curriculum subject but rather amalgamated into other existing high stake subjects. The issues related to sustainable tourism development are infused into Social Studies, Science, Cultural Studies, Environmental Science and Creative and Performing Arts at levels preceding tertiary education (Department of Curriculum Development & Evaluation, 2005)

            The subsequent nemesis of this concoction is lack of a sustainable tourism development base. As Buchsbaum (2004) notes “the hope is that education can build environmental ethos…” (p. 67). These are the ethos needed by an individual who is to function well in a community where sustainable tourism development is crucial to the ecological future of the global world. If the status quo is left to persist, then our education graduates will eternally serve as an antidote to the efforts of achieving sustainability in tourism.

            A regional study conducted by SADC (2009) has indicated that a variety of sustainable tourism development initiatives exist in the SADC region to promote the social, economic and ecological sustainability in the region. Yet, these efforts often replicate and compete with one another. Thus, the logical conclusion that can be deduced here is that developing countries are technically challenged. In this instance, everything boils down to lack of managerial skills and professional approach (Urquhart, 1998). On the other hand though, this essay hastens to posit that, replicating policies and projects without careful consideration for the sovereign and local settings in developing countries which is so much varied is a challenge precipitated by the very policy developers and reformers with poor planning. Developmental programs like Sustainable Tourism for Eliminating Poverty (STEP) by the UNWTO have failed in some countries (Gartner, 2008). Moreover, Manwa and Manwa (2014) cautions that one size fits all strategies do not always pen out well in sustainable tourism development.

            The traditional reliance on agriculture by most developing countries has meant that every effort is made to protect the industry or develop it. Within the Southern African region, such efforts have included erection of veterinary fences to control animal diseases like foot and mouth (Botswana Wildlife Producers Association, 2005) whilst also wrongfully restricting the natural movements of species (Perkins & Ringrose, 1996). It must be borne in mind that these movements are migratory routes in search of grazing pastures and water. Thus altering natural movements is incongruent to sustainable tourism development.

            The above situation was observed in Botswana by Moswete and Dube (2011) that the veterinary fences renders the ecologically rich Makgadikgadi, Okavango and Chobe out of bounds for animals in other parts of Botswana consequently threatening their survival which on the bigger picture is needed for sustainable tourism development.

            As has been noted earlier in this essay by Akama and Keiti (2007) as well as in Mbaiwa (2005) that enclave tourism has a lot of demerits upon the locals socio-economically, the International Council on Local Environmental Activities (1999) cautions that, ecologically the intrusion of large foreign owned tourism enterprises brings along huge numbers of tourists with high consumption and waste habits into developing countries which unfortunately do not have adequate waste management infrastructure. On the extreme, these enclave businesses do not take due care of the environmental impact of their actions to the extent of exceeding the carrying capacities of their resorts (Buchsbaum, 2004).

             As the ICLEA (1999) hastens, one of the barriers to sustainable tourism development is over-reliance on a market that treats our exquisite natural environment and culture as free public goods leading to insensitive and irresponsible tourism.  By contrast, the level of consumption and waste produced by locals alone is less compared to the foreigners who are part-time inhabitants of natural areas in developing countries. The inconsiderate behaviour by businesses and tourists is so much against governments policies adopted by developing countries like Botswana; “low volume-high value” approach to sustainable tourism policies (Rozemeijer, 2000). This is, however, not to imply that all tourists are this bad because some are educated and responsible travelers in developing countries. Efforts are made to try and educate travelers to destinations in areas that masses converge like the Toyota 1000km race in Botswana and Dakar race in Senegal.

            Sustainable tourism development in developing countries also faces a financial challenge in terms of funding for sustainable projects. Fazendin (2009) points to the fact that this lack thereof funding has led to a heavy reliance on international help from the west. The author singles out Mozambique as a state where construction and communication initiatives across the country are mainly from the international community. In this case, it is only logical then to question the support of the governments in developing countries towards sustainable tourism development.      The rhetoric of economic recession leading to reduced government spending and investment in sustainable tourism is immaterial at this juncture. The government of Botswana has took a major decision to invest over P50 billion towards the development of Kasane into a world tourism hub during the 2016-2017 budget. The money is poised to be used for developments and compensation because some residential areas are to be demolished to pave way for the Kasane-Kanzungula bridge which is also a challenge as compensation is never enough (K. Macala, personal communication, 26 April, 2016).

            Jamal et al., (2013) indicates that attention has to be paid towards among others, indigenous people, women and ethnic minority in developing countries who stand to be impacted by tourism and neoliberal agendas. From the above, one can pick interestingly something that is uncommon in most research on sustainable tourism, the role played by females. This feminist push is somewhat necessary for discussion as a challenge towards sustainable tourism development in developing countries where women are traditionally relegated to the background in ecological discourses. On a demeaning level, their involvement is rather limited to domestic chores in tourism resorts like preparing food, cleaning and bar-tending.

            Human beings have coexisted with wildlife and the environment since early human evolution. In this context, people have always cared for wildlife species through totemic cultural practices like in African Traditional Religion (Mogapi & Mathole, 2013). However, there were other practices that led to mass killings of wildlife for community consumption (Ngongolo., Gatsha., & Selwe, 2010).

            As countries got more civilized, policies and legislations were drafted in to control hunting of wildlife species for game meat in pursuit of sustainable tourism development. For example, Botswana introduced the nationwide hunting ban in 2014 seeking a paradigm shift from consumptive tourism to sustainable tourism development (Daily News, 2013). Consequently, these developments increased poaching for subsistence use and commercially by large synchronized syndicates. This also extends to cross border poaching which negatively impact on wildlife populations and environmental degradation (Republic of Malawi, 2006). Developing countries are thus challenged to put in place expensive and technological anti-poaching interventions at the expense of investing in sustainable tourism development projects. This financial redirection by governments is also relative to curbing criminality, prostitution, HIV/AIDS and drug abuse (UNCSD, 1999). A South African study has revealed that if issues such as crime and security of tourists are not addressed in a concerned and coordinated manner, tourism in whatever form will be adversely affected (Ferreira, 1999). The same can be extended to sustainable tourism development in developing countries.

            Due to scientific advancements by the global world, some experts have experimented with breeding of wildlife species. Much of these experiments have been in developing countries. The repercussions that ensue there from can cause changes in the distribution of phenotypic traits in experimental species, often with inconsiderate biological and ecological consequences (Bunnefeld & Keane, 2014). These authors emphasis their assertion with a Zimbabwean experiment that went wrong in trying to reduce trophy horns in two antelope species and antlers in red deer.

            Economical crisis, civil wars and political turmoil have negative implications for sustainable tourism development (Milazi, 1996). In extending the same, Harrison (1992) cautions that instability in one country can subsequently affect neighbouring countries transport and communication systems which are vital for sustainable tourism development. Countries such as Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, Angola and Namibia were singled out as states whose civil matters even affected those beyond their territorial borders. Additionally, Eretria, Ethiopia and Kenya are examples in upper Africa (Common Market for Eastern & Southern Africa, 2012)

Conclusion

                Even though debate on sustainable tourism development is patchy, disjointed and flawed with scholarly arguments (Liu, 2010), everything appears to trickle down to discussing sustainable tourism development from a drift premised on the tenets of the social, economic and ecological sustainability (Mbaiwa, 2005). It has emerged from discussion that sustainable tourism is faced with a plethora of challenges with regards to developing sustainable tourism in developing countries. Such challenges are somewhat relative to these countries. They include the following but not limited to; poorly funded tourism, narrow product ranges, infrastructural and facilities challenges, untrained personnel, disregard for local communities, ineffective marketing, diseases, climate change, donor dependency and political influence ( Desczynski, 2011; Moswete & Dube, 2011; COMESA, 2012).

            Despite the challenges that have been discussed in length above, affirmative action has to be taken in addition to existing efforts towards sustainable tourism development in developing countries. What is needed now is a new era of economic growth that is rather forceful and at the same time socially and environmentally sustainable (UNCSD, 2007). Implicit in the above is that stern measures should be taken in pursuit of a common sustainable future bearing in mind the ecological repercussions of proposed interventions on tourism in developing countries. It is regrettable that these developing countries are mostly former colonies and do not have enough capacity to effectively implement successful sustainable tourism development initiatives within their borders because some of the problems emanate elsewhere and find their way into their tourism industry through porous policies and legislation. However, as suggested, pragmatic social, economic and ecologically sustainable tourism development initiatives are the path to success.

 

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